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VOLUME 36 : NUMBER 2 : APRIL 2013
ARTICLE
Full text free online at www.australianprescriber.com
Helen M Conaglen
Clinical psychologist and
Senior research fellow
John V Conaglen
Endocrinologist and
Associate professor in
Medicine
Sexual Health Research Unit
Waikato Clinical School
Faculty of Medical and
Health Sciences
University of Auckland
Key words
antidepressants,
antihypertensives,
antipsychotics, arousal,
erectile dysfunction,
hypoactive sexual desire
disorder, male impotence,
orgasm
Aust Prescr 2013;36:42–5
whether the clinician is willing to ask about sexual
issues and does so in a sensitive way.7,8
Patients on long-term medications may not be
aware that their sexual problems have developed
as a result of their treatment. Conversely some may
blame their drugs for sexual problems which are due
to relationship difficulties or other stressors. Some
doctors consider that asking patients if they had
noticed any sexual adverse effects from their drugs
may ‘suggest’ them to the patient, and possibly result
in non-adherence. Patients attributing their sexual
problems to their drugs are less likely to continue the
treatment even when necessary for their health.9 The
consultation should include discussion of the patient’s
sexual issues so these can be considered in treatment
decisions.
Treatments for hypertension
Hypertension is associated with sexual dysfunction.10
Antihypertensives may also contribute to the problem
and lead to low treatment adherence.4
Men
In an international survey, 20% of men using beta
blockers (beta adrenoreceptor antagonists) for
hypertension had erectile dysfunction.11 Centrally-
acting alpha agonists (for example clonidine) and
diuretics have also been implicated in impairing
sexual function.4 The aldosterone receptor blocker
spironolactone also blocks the androgen receptor
and is associated with erectile dysfunction and
gynaecomastia.
Women
Sexual dysfunction is more common in women
with hypertension (before treatment) compared
to normotensive women (42% vs 19%).12 Although
the sexual effects of antihypertensives have been
poorly studied in women, these drugs may have
similar adverse effects on the arousal phase as in
men, leading to failure of swelling and lubrication.
Decreased sexual desire (41% of women) and
sexual pleasure (34%) have been reported.13 Alpha
adrenergic drugs such as clonidine and prazosin
also reduce desire (in a small, randomised trial)14
and arousal15. The angiotensin II receptor antagonist,
valsartan, was associated with improved sexual desire
and fantasies when compared with the beta blocker
atenolol in women with hypertension.16
Introduction
Several classes of prescription drugs contribute to
sexual dysfunction in men and women (Table 1).1-3
Patients who develop drug-induced sexual
dysfunction are more likely to be non-adherent.
This has been found with antihypertensives4 and
antipsychotics5. The literature has emphasised male
sexual problems with less data available on female or
couple problems.
Recreational drugs such as alcohol, narcotics,
stimulants and hallucinogens also affect sexual
function. Short-term use of alcohol affects sexual
desire by decreasing inhibitions, but also diminishes
performance and delays orgasm and ejaculation.
Many substance abusers report better sexual function,
but often their partners report the opposite.6
Sexual function consists of the phases of sexual
desire, arousal and orgasm. Both men and women
can experience problems in any of these phases. Low
desire, lack of swelling and lubrication in women,
erectile dysfunction, premature, retrograde or absent
ejaculation, anorgasmia and painful sex not only
affect the individual, but also impact on their partner.
Talking to the patient
Whether patients report their sexual problems
depends on several factors, including whether the
patient is comfortable disclosing these problems, and
Summary
Many medical conditions and their treatments
contribute to sexual dysfunction.
Commonly implicated drugs include
antihypertensives, antidepressants,
antipsychotics and antiandrogens.
Understanding the potential for drug-induced
sexual problems and their negative impact
on adherence to treatment will enable the
clinician to tailor treatments for the patient
and his or her partner.
Encouraging a discussion with the patient
about sexual function and providing
strategies to manage the problem are critical
to good clinical care.
Drug-induced sexual dysfunction in men
and women

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VOLUME 36 : NUMBER 2 : APRIL 2013
Table 1 Drugs associated with sexual dysfunction 1-3
Drug class
Decreased desire
Decreased arousal
Orgasm or ejaculatory difficulties
Antidepressants
amitriptyline
clomipramine
fluoxetine
imipramine
paroxetine
phenelzine
sertraline
amitriptyline
citalopram
clomipramine
doxepin
fluoxetine
imipramine
nortriptyline
paroxetine
phenelzine
sertraline
tranylcypromine
citalopram
clomipramine
doxepin
escitalopram
fluoxetine*
fluvoxamine
imipramine
nortriptyline
paroxetine*
sertraline*
tranylcypromine
venlafaxine
Other psychotropic drugs
alprazolam
chlorpromazine
fluphenazine
haloperidol
lithium
risperidone
chlorpromazine
fluphenazine
lithium
risperidone
alprazolam
fluphenazine
haloperidol
risperidone
Cardiovascular drugs
clonidine
digoxin
hydrochlorothiazide
methyldopa
spironolactone
beta blockers
clonidine
digoxin
hydrochlorothiazide
methyldopa
perhexilene
spironolactone
Other drugs
cimetidine
antihistamines
cimetidine
cyproterone
disulfiram
gonadotrophin-releasing
hormone agonists
propantheline
pseudoephedrine
naproxen
* common cause of orgasmic difficulty
Antidepressants
Many antidepressants cause sexual difficulties.17,20
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotonin
noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors inhibit desire, cause
erectile dysfunction and decrease vaginal lubrication.
They also impair orgasm in 5–71% of patients.18,21,22
This adverse effect is used therapeutically to delay
premature ejaculation.
Tricyclic antidepressants inhibit sexual desire and
orgasm.23,24 The effects of specific drugs vary
depending on their mechanism of action. For
example, clomipramine causes orgasmic difficulties in
Psychoactive drugs
Aside from the medicine, it is important to be
aware of the effects of psychiatric problems on the
patient’s relationship and address the psychosocial
issues.17 Up to 70% of patients with depression have
sexual dysfunction, which can affect any phase of
sexual activity.18 Reports indicate that 30–80% of
women and 45–80% of men with schizophrenia also
experience sexual problems.19 In these patients, it may
be difficult to distinguish the effects of the illness on
sexual function from the effects of the drugs used for
treatment.

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VOLUME 36 : NUMBER 2 : APRIL 2013
poorly understood, other neurotransmitter pathways
including histamine blockade, noradrenergic blockade
and anticholinergic effects may also be affected by
antipsychotics.
Before commencing dopamine receptor
antagonists it is useful to establish a baseline
prolactin, as subsequent elevation can then be
attributed to the drug. Non-drug induced causes of
hyperprolactinaemia such as pituitary tumours should
be considered in patients on dopamine receptor
antagonists.33
Antiepileptics
Sexual dysfunction is common in patients on
antiepileptic drugs.34 Gabapentin and topiramate have
been associated with orgasmic dysfunction in both
men and women, and reduced libido in women.35-37
Contraceptives
Oral contraceptives decrease circulating free
testosterone. It is postulated that this decreases
desire in women, although there is little evidence to
support this.38 As with other disorders, the impact
of social context including the relationship, and fear
of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases
are confounding influences in clinical reports of the
impact of oral contraceptives.
Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, used as a
contraceptive in women, can cause weight gain,
depression, vaginal atrophy and dyspareunia with
decreased libido in up to 15% of women.39-41
Treatments for cancer
The impact of malignancy and its treatment on
both the individual and his or her partner can have
a significant negative influence on their sexual
relationship. Many of the cancer treatments can lead to
sexual dysfunction. As common examples, long-acting
gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonists used for
prostate and breast cancer result in hypogonadism,
with subsequent reduction in sexual desire, erectile
dysfunction in men42, vaginal atrophy and dyspareunia
in women as well as orgasmic dysfunction.34
Drugs for lower urinary tract
symptoms and benign prostatic
hyperplasia
Men who present with symptomatic benign prostatic
hyperplasia and lower urinary tract symptoms have
an increased incidence of sexual dysfunction. Overall,
72.2% of men with lower urinary tract symptoms had
erectile dysfunction compared with 37.7% in those
without lower urinary tract symptoms.43 Although
surgery and various therapies can improve lower
up to 90% of patients, while nortriptyline causes more
erectile dysfunction but has less effect on orgasm.25
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are also associated
with sexual dysfunction. Although moclobemide was
reported to increase sexual desire,24 the doses used in
that study were considered subtherapeutic.
Other antidepressants such as venlafaxine and
mirtazapine have variable negative effects on
all aspects of sexual function. Initial reports on
agomelatine in both male and female patients with
major depressive disorder suggested significant
antidepressant efficacy without significant sexual
adverse effects. However, more recent reviews of the
sexual effects are conflicting.26,27
Antipsychotics
Some antipsychotics may affect sexual function
more than others (see Table 2).19,28 The only Cochrane
review of antipsychotic-induced sexual dysfunction
has reported a small number of studies relating to
men, but none relating to women.29
Men taking antipsychotics report erectile dysfunction,
decreased orgasmic quality with delayed, inhibited
or retrograde ejaculation, and diminished interest in
sex. Women experience decreased desire, difficulty
achieving orgasm, changes in orgasmic quality and
anorgasmia. Dyspareunia, secondary to oestrogen
deficiency, can result in vaginal atrophy and dryness.
Galactorrhea is experienced in both sexes.28
A recent observational study of schizophrenia
found that in patients with diminished sexual desire,
ziprasidone was preferred over olanzapine.30 The
majority of antipsychotics cause sexual dysfunction
by dopamine receptor blockade. This causes
hyperprolactinaemia with subsequent suppression
of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis and
hypogonadism in both sexes. This decreases sexual
desire and impairs arousal and orgasm. It also causes
secondary amenorrhoea and loss of ovarian function
in women and low testosterone in men.31,32 Although
Table 2 The relative impact of
antipsychotic drugs on sexual
function 19,28
Effect on sexual function
Antipsychotic
Least
Most
aripiprazole
quetiapine
clozapine
olanzapine
haloperidol
risperidone
Drug-induced sexual dysfunction

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VOLUME 36 : NUMBER 2 : APRIL 2013
alpha blockers, where postural hypotension can be
a problem. In women, sildenafil has shown promise
for reversing the inadequate lubrication and delayed
orgasm induced by selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors.53
Changing to an alternative drug is recommended
for men and women taking antihypertensives. Alpha
blockers, ACE inhibitors and calcium channel blockers
are not considered to cause erectile dysfunction,54
while several studies have suggested that angiotensin II
receptor antagonists may even improve sexual
function. Beta1-selective beta blockers such as
nebivolol may have potential advantages in these
patients.55
In patients taking antipsychotics, establish the cause
of the hyperprolactinaemia then consider dose
reduction or switching to prolactin-sparing drugs.
Relationship counselling and addressing patient-
specific concerns can be useful.28
In women, oestrogen cream can alleviate local
symptoms such as atrophic vaginitis and dyspareunia.
If a woman complains of sexual dysfunction while
on an injectable progestogen, another form of
contraceptive can be considered.34
Suggested solutions to gabapentin-induced
anorgasmia include dose reduction, timing of dose
away from planned coitus until anorgasmia no longer
occurs, substitution with a different medication, and
co-administration of other medications.35,36
Conclusion
Understanding both the impact of a disorder and the
effects of its treatment on both the patient and their
partner are critical to providing good clinical care.
It is important for the clinician to acknowledge and
encourage discussion regarding sexual function, as
well as enquire about the impact of drugs on sexual
function. This will ensure patients and their partners
understand their sexual difficulties and treatment
options.
Conflict of interest: none declared
urinary tract symptoms, some of these treatments
also cause or exacerbate erectile dysfunction and
ejaculatory dysfunction.43
Alpha blockers such as doxazosin, tamsulosin,
terazosin and alfuzosin for benign prostatic
hyperplasia are reported to be no worse than
placebo in their effects on sexual function, although
tamsulosin was associated with approximately 10%
increase in ejaculatory dysfunction in treated men.44
Other drugs that cause sexual
dysfunction
Antiandrogens such as cyproterone acetate,
cimetidine, digoxin and spironolactone block the
androgen receptor. This reduces sexual desire in both
sexes,45 and affects arousal and orgasm.
Steroids such as prednisone used for many
chronic inflammatory disorders result in low serum
testosterone which reduces sexual desire and causes
erectile dysfunction.46 Immunosuppressive drugs such
as sirolimus and everolimus are widely used in kidney
transplantation and can impair gonadal function and
cause erectile dysfunction.47 Protease inhibitors for
HIV have also been implicated in sexual dysfunction
and cause erectile problems in over half of men taking
them.48
Many other drugs including antihistamines,
pseudoephedrine, opioids and recreational drugs may
cause sexual dysfunction and should be considered
when assessing the patient.
Strategies to manage sexual
dysfunction
Non-drug approaches include therapy with a clinical
psychologist who understands sexual dysfunction.
A variety of strategies have been tried to reverse
drug-induced sexual dysfunction, including drug
switching, dose reduction and drug holidays. Taking
a phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor in anticipation
of intercourse has become the standard of care for
men.49-51 It improves erections in about 70% of men
with hypertension.52 However, phosphodiesterase
type 5 inhibitors are contraindicated in men using
nitrates and should be used with caution in those on
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