Journal Description
Soil Systems
Soil Systems
- formerly Soils - is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on soil science, published quarterly online by MDPI. The Italian Society of Soil Science (SISS) is affiliated with Soil Systems and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), AGRIS, PubAg, GeoRef, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Soil Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (Earth-Surface Processes)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 32.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
2.9 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.3 (2023)
Latest Articles
Tracing Soil Contamination from Pre-Roman Slags at the Monte Romero Archaeological Site, Southwest Spain
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030078 - 8 Jul 2024
Abstract
Soil serves as a repository of human history, preserving artifacts within its horizons. However, the presence of chemically reactive remnants, such as ancient slags, can significantly impact the surrounding soil environment. This paper addresses this scarcely explored issue by focusing on soil contamination
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Soil serves as a repository of human history, preserving artifacts within its horizons. However, the presence of chemically reactive remnants, such as ancient slags, can significantly impact the surrounding soil environment. This paper addresses this scarcely explored issue by focusing on soil contamination arising from pre-Roman slag deposits at the Monte Romero archaeological site in southwest Spain, dating back to the Tartessian period (c. 7th century BC). Through the high-resolution microscopy examination of slag wastes and the trace element analysis of soil samples by ICP-OES, this study evaluated current contamination status using a multi-index approach. The results revealed markedly high levels of Pb (>5000 mg kg−1), Cu (up to 2730 mg kg−1), and As (up to 445 mg kg−1) in the soil compared to a control sample. The identification of secondary complex compounds like Cu arsenates and Pb arsenates/antimonates within slag cavities suggests post-depositional weathering processes, leading to the dispersion of potentially toxic elements into the surrounding soil. Assessments through indices of contamination and potential ecological risk highlighted severe contamination, particularly concerning Ag, Pb, Sb, Cu, and As. This study underscores the importance of addressing potential environmental hazards associated with archaeological sites hosting remnants of metal production.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soils in Archaeological Research)
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Open AccessCommunication
Simulated Lunar Soil: Can It Be Organically Modified through Compost Cultivation?
by
Zhixuan Gong, Jia Wen, Yichen Zhou, Yunbo Zhai and Jinghao Xu
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030077 - 5 Jul 2024
Abstract
This study aimed to explore the possibility of improving the fertility of lunar soil through the reuse of resources by composting household waste and collecting composting fermentation broth. The fermentation broth was used to culture a simulated lunar soil at different concentration gradients
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This study aimed to explore the possibility of improving the fertility of lunar soil through the reuse of resources by composting household waste and collecting composting fermentation broth. The fermentation broth was used to culture a simulated lunar soil at different concentration gradients for 30 days under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen content, typical mineral elements, and the microbial community were tested to determine whether the fertility of the lunar soil had improved. Results showed that the microorganisms in the simulated lunar soil samples successfully adhered and grew under both aerobic and anaerobic experimental conditions. The simulated lunar soil samples cultured in the anaerobic environment outperformed those in the aerobic environment regarding microbial biomass growth and water-soluble mineral elements. The study results create opportunities for the future reuse of domestic garbage on the lunar base, providing a technical basis for the in situ reuse of lunar soil resources for plant cultivation.
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Open AccessArticle
Enzymatic Diagnostics of Soil Health of the European Part of Russia with Lead Contamination
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Tatiana Minnikova, Sergey Kolesnikov, Anna Kuzina, Dmitry Trufanov, Ekaterina Khrapay and Anatoly Trushkov
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030076 - 5 Jul 2024
Abstract
Lead (Pb) is one of the most common environmental pollutants. Lead has an acute toxic effect on soil biotas and the enzymatic system of soils. The objective of this study is to carry out enzymatic diagnostics of soil health in the European part
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Lead (Pb) is one of the most common environmental pollutants. Lead has an acute toxic effect on soil biotas and the enzymatic system of soils. The objective of this study is to carry out enzymatic diagnostics of soil health in the European part of Russia after Pb contamination. As a part of the simulation experiment, Pb (at maximum permissible concentrations (MPCs) of 1, 10, and 100) was used to contaminate 12 types of soils in the south and center of the European part of Russia, which differed in their physical and chemical properties. To assess soil health, the activity of oxidoreductases (catalase, dehydrogenases, and cysteine reductase) and hydrolases (invertase, urease, and phosphatase) was studied. Most enzymes were inhibited with increased Pb dosage. The most sensitive soils to Pb contamination, assessed by enzyme activity, are soils of semi-deserts and dry steppes. Cysteine reductase is considered the most sensitive enzyme to Pb contamination. The most informative indicators for Pb contamination were phosphatase, cysteine reductase, and invertase. The P (phosphatase) cycle and the redox enzyme (catalase) also have instability in Pb-contaminated soils. The C (invertase and dehydrogenases) and N (urease) cycles do not change significantly when contaminated with lead. The results of this study can be used for the diagnostics of the condition of soils in different natural areas after Pb contamination.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Heavy Metals in Soils and Sediments)
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Open AccessArticle
The Effect of Soil Heterogeneity on the Content of Macronutrients and Micronutrients in the Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
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Antonín Kintl, Ján Šmeringai, Tomáš Lošák, Igor Huňady, Julie Sobotková, Tadeáš Hrušovský, Ladislav Varga, Karel Vejražka and Jakub Elbl
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030075 - 4 Jul 2024
Abstract
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important legumes currently grown. It is an important source of proteins and nutrients, such as calcium, potassium and iron. As a result, precise crop management is necessary for maximizing its production. The presented
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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important legumes currently grown. It is an important source of proteins and nutrients, such as calcium, potassium and iron. As a result, precise crop management is necessary for maximizing its production. The presented study deals with the effect of soil heterogeneity caused by variable contents of macro- and micronutrients on the uptake of nutrients by chickpea. The values measured (contents of macro- and micronutrients in plant samples) indicate that soil heterogeneity is an important factor for the contents of nutrients and soil reactions, which strongly affect the growth of chickpea. We investigated the soil heterogeneity in a chickpea field. Two zones (A and B) with different stand development were found in the model plot. Zone A showed a healthy (green) growth, while Zone B exhibited a yellow-coloured growth, indicating deficits in nutrient uptake. The contents of selected nutrients (P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn) in the soil and in the plant biomass (i.e., stems, leaves, pods and seeds) were analyzed. In the zone with the yellow-coloured biomass, the results showed significantly (p < 0.05) reduced contents of N, P, K, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn in the leaves; higher values of soil reaction (pH); and higher contents of calcium and calcium carbonate in the soil. The uptake of nutrients by the plants and their translocation were affected by the above-mentioned soil parameters and by their mutual interactions. Therefore, it is possible to state that soil heterogeneity (caused by variable contents of nutrients in soil) should be taken into account in the precise crop management of chickpeas.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Soil Management: Food Supply, Environmental Impacts, and Socioeconomic Functions)
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Open AccessArticle
Changes in the Composition of Soil Organic Matter after the Transformation of Natural Beech Stands into Spruce Monoculture
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Saven Thai, Lenka Pavlů, Petra Vokurková, Bunthorn Thet, Kateřina Vejvodová, Ondřej Drábek and Václav Tejnecký
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030074 - 3 Jul 2024
Abstract
The composition of soil organic matter is considered to have a key influence on C sequestration and global climate change and can be associated with changes in vegetation cover in the terrestrial ecosystem. Our study aimed to evaluate the soil chemical structures and
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The composition of soil organic matter is considered to have a key influence on C sequestration and global climate change and can be associated with changes in vegetation cover in the terrestrial ecosystem. Our study aimed to evaluate the soil chemical structures and various organic components from available or reactive to more stable forms in forest soils affected by acidification and after conversion from fairly close to natural beech (Fagus sylvatica) stands to a spruce (Picea abies) monoculture. Our results revealed that the beech stands had higher contents of dissolved organic carbon and low molecular mass organic acid compared to the spruce stands. The aliphatic CH groups within the soluble alkaline-extractable organic substance (AEOS) gradually disappeared with deeper soil horizons under both forest species, while the presence of aliphatic CH groups in the low-solubility AEOS was more pronounced in the A horizon under spruce and relatively increased with depth under beech stands. The carboxylic groups were more prevalent in deeper soil horizons, while polysaccharide chains and nitrogen functional groups decreased with depth under both forest stands but were more prevalent under beech than under spruce stands. These findings suggest that the stability of organic matter through the forest soil profiles increased due to the transformation of various organic compounds from litter to more stable organic matter with higher amounts of lignin components to greater amounts of carboxylic groups and aromatic groups in deeper soil horizons. Furthermore, a higher number of mobile components of soil organic matter and carboxylic acids, together with lower pH and cation exchange capacity under spruce, resulted in the leaching of nutrients, releasing risk elements into the soil solution and accelerating the podzolization process.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Soil Management and Conservation: 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessReview
Liquid Nanoclay: Synthesis and Applications to Transform an Arid Desert into Fertile Land
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Kamel A. Abd-Elsalam, Mirza Abid Mehmood, Muhammad Ashfaq, Toka E. Abdelkhalek, Rawan K. Hassan and Mythili Ravichandran
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030073 - 27 Jun 2024
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Nanoclay, a processed clay, is utilized in numerous high-performance cement nanocomposites. This clay consists of minerals such as kaolinite, illite, chlorite, and smectite, which are the primary components of raw clay materials formed in the presence of water. In addition to silica, alumina,
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Nanoclay, a processed clay, is utilized in numerous high-performance cement nanocomposites. This clay consists of minerals such as kaolinite, illite, chlorite, and smectite, which are the primary components of raw clay materials formed in the presence of water. In addition to silica, alumina, and water, it also contains various concentrations of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, and Ca2+. These are categorized as hydrous phyllosilicates and can be located either in interlayer spaces or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are distinguished by their two-dimensional sheets and tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3) crystal structures. Different clay minerals are classified based on the presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layers in their structure. These include kaolinite, which has a 1:1 ratio of tetrahedral to octahedral layers, the smectite group of clay minerals and chlorite with a 2:1 ratio. Clay minerals are unique due to their small size, distinct crystal structure, and properties such as high cation exchange capacity, adsorption capacity, specific surface area, and swelling behavior. These characteristics are discussed in this review. The use of nanoclays as nanocarriers for fertilizers boasts a diverse array of materials available in both anionic and cationic variations. Layered double hydroxides (LDH) possess a distinctive capacity for exchanging anions, making them suitable for facilitating the transport of borate, phosphate, and nitrate ions. Liquid nanoclays are used extensively in agriculture, specifically as fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, and nutrients. These novel nanomaterials have numerous benefits, including improved nutrient use, controlled nutrient release, targeted nutrient delivery, and increased agricultural productivity. Arid regions face distinct challenges like limited water availability, poor soil quality, and reduced productivity. The addition of liquid nanoclay to sandy soil offers a range of benefits that contribute to improved soil quality and environmental sustainability. Liquid nanoclay is being proposed for water management in arid regions, which will necessitate a detailed examination of soil, water availability, and hydrological conditions. Small-scale trial initiatives, engagement with local governments, and regular monitoring are required to fully comprehend its benefits and drawbacks. These developments would increase the practicality and effectiveness of using liquid nanoclay in desert agriculture.
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Open AccessArticle
Enhancing Soil Environments and Wheat Production through Water Hyacinth Biochar under Deficit Irrigation in Ethiopian Acidic Silty Loam Soil
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Desalew Fentie, Fekremariam Asargew Mihretie, Yudai Kohira, Solomon Addisu Legesse, Mekuanint Lewoyehu and Shinjiro Sato
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030072 - 27 Jun 2024
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The combined application of biochar and fertilizer has become increasingly popular for improving soil quality and crop productivity. However, the reported research results regarding the effects of biochar on soil properties and crop productivity have contradictory findings, indicating the requirement for further scientific
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The combined application of biochar and fertilizer has become increasingly popular for improving soil quality and crop productivity. However, the reported research results regarding the effects of biochar on soil properties and crop productivity have contradictory findings, indicating the requirement for further scientific research. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of a combined application of water hyacinth biochar (WHB) and NPS fertilizer on soil physicochemical properties and wheat yield under deficit irrigation conditions in acidic silty loam soil in Ethiopia. Four different biochar rates (0, 5, 10, and 20 t ha−1), three fertilizer rates (0, 100, and 200 kg NPS ha−1), and two irrigation regimes (50 and 100% of crop requirement) were evaluated to assess soil properties and wheat yields. The results showed that biochar amendment significantly reduced soil bulk density by 15.1–16.7%, and improved soil porosity by 6.8–8.6% and moisture content by 10.3–20.2%. Additionally, the combined application of biochar and fertilizer improved soil pH (0.26–0.87 units), NH4+–N (73.7–144%), NO3−–N (131–637%), and available phosphorus (85.8–427%), compared to the application of fertilizer alone. As a result, wheat dry biomass and grain yield increased by 260 and 173%, respectively. Furthermore, the combined application of WHB and fertilizer resulted in a comparable wheat dry biomass and grain yield even with a 50% reduction of irrigation water. Therefore, WHB has a significant potential to improve soil physicochemical properties and wheat yield when it is applied in combination with fertilizer, and it can reduce the water requirement for wheat production.
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Open AccessArticle
Assessing the Dissipation of Pesticides of Different Polarities in Soil Samples
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Carlos Eduardo Rodríguez-Palma, Pilar Campíns-Falcó and Rosa Herráez-Hernández
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030071 - 24 Jun 2024
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A methodology has been developed to assess the presence and dissipation of herbicides of a wide range of polarities in soil using in-tube solid-phase microextraction (IT-SPME) coupled online to capillary liquid chromatography (capLC). The compounds investigated were tritosulfuron (TRT), triflusulfuron-methyl (TRF), aclonifen (ACL),
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A methodology has been developed to assess the presence and dissipation of herbicides of a wide range of polarities in soil using in-tube solid-phase microextraction (IT-SPME) coupled online to capillary liquid chromatography (capLC). The compounds investigated were tritosulfuron (TRT), triflusulfuron-methyl (TRF), aclonifen (ACL), and bifenox (BF), with log octanol-water partition coefficients (log Kow) ranging from 0.62 to 4.48. The method provided suitable linearity at concentration levels of 0.5–4.0 µg/g for TRT and TRF, and 0.2–1.0 µg/g for ACL and BF, and intra- and interday precision (expressed as relative standard deviation) ≤4% and ≤8%, respectively. The mean recoveries ranged from 90% to 101%, and the limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) were in the intervals of 0.05–0.1 µg/g and 0.1–0.4 µg/g, respectively. The accuracy of the method was also satisfactory. The proposed approach was successfully applied to assess the degradation of the tested herbicides in different types of soil (agricultural, urban and forest) after being exposed to different laboratory and outdoor conditions. The results obtained showed a greater persistence of the most apolar compounds ACL and BF, with percentages of degraded herbicide ≤31% regardless of the soil characteristics. In contrast, a significant degradation of highly polar herbicides TRT and TRF was observed in soils with the lowest organic matter, even after a few days of exposure. For example, the percentages of remaining TRT and TRF in this kind of soil after 20 days were ≤65%; the half-life time of TRF was only 24.8 days. These results indicate that the proposed approach can be considered as an effective tool for a better understanding of soil pollution.
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Open AccessEditorial
Contemporary Applications of Geostatistics to Soil Studies
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Jarosław Zawadzki
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030070 - 24 Jun 2024
Abstract
This Special Issue presents carefully selected examples of Contemporary Applications of Geostatistics to Soil Studies [...]
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Applications of Geostatistics to Soil Studies)
Open AccessReview
Using Date Palm Residues to Improve Soil Properties: The Case of Compost and Biochar
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Victor Kavvadias, Elie Le Guyader, Mohamed El Mazlouzi, Maxime Gommeaux, Belkacem Boumaraf, Mohamed Moussa, Hafouda Lamine, Mahtali Sbih, Ines Rahma Zoghlami, Kamel Guimeur, Aissa Tirichine, Abid Adelfettah, Beatrice Marin and Xavier Morvan
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030069 - 24 Jun 2024
Abstract
Agricultural residues are generated during the production and processing of agricultural crops. Under modern date palm plantation practices, field operations generate huge quantities of residues, which are discarded with little valorization. The date palm agro-industry produces significant amounts of waste. The accumulation of
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Agricultural residues are generated during the production and processing of agricultural crops. Under modern date palm plantation practices, field operations generate huge quantities of residues, which are discarded with little valorization. The date palm agro-industry produces significant amounts of waste. The accumulation of these residues can cause ecological damage to the oasis ecosystems. There is a lack of comprehensive data on long-term research studies that aim to assess the impact of date palm waste management practices. Composting and/or pyrolysis of date palm residues showed benefits for improving soil physical and chemical properties, particularly in sandy soils. This claim holds particular significance for arid and semi-arid regions, which are characterized by low fertility and are susceptible to soil degradation, accentuated by ongoing climate change. This review summarizes the existing literature concerning the valorization of date palm residues with regards to compost and pyrolysis processes, as well as the impact of their application on soil quality. Further research is required to assess the effects of using date palm residues for better soil amendment management. Research should focus on composting and biochar technologies for date palm residues and their application in arid and semi-arid regions to combat soil erosion and degradation. Increasing the beneficial uses of date palm residues could lead to sustainable and economic growth in dry areas.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Bioremediation)
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Open AccessArticle
Assessment of Mixed Amendments of CaCO3/Na2SO4 Ratio on the pH Buffer Capacity and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage of Soils with Contrasting Properties
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Dante Pinochet, Carolina Romero, Fernando Ramírez and John Clunes
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8030068 - 21 Jun 2024
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Reusing the by-products from wood pulp processing can promote the efficient use of resources. In this sense, the objective of this research was to determine the agronomic efficiency of CaCO3 and Na2SO4 by-products from wood pulp processing to establish
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Reusing the by-products from wood pulp processing can promote the efficient use of resources. In this sense, the objective of this research was to determine the agronomic efficiency of CaCO3 and Na2SO4 by-products from wood pulp processing to establish criteria for their use and avoid undesirable side effects when applying these materials to the soil. Six treatments in proportions of 1; 0.9; 0.75; 0.5, 0.25, and 0, of CaCO3/Na2SO4, respectively, were incubated at a constant temperature and humidity for 15 days. The first proportion consisted of 100% CaCO3, while M1 mixed 90% CaCO3 and 10% Na2SO4, M2: 75% CaCO3 and 25% Na2SO4, M3: 50% CaCO3 and 50% Na2SO4, M4: 25% CaCO3 and 75% Na2SO4, with the last proportion comprised of 100% Na2SO4. Samples of 40 g from two soil series, Licantén (Inceptisol) and San José (Andisol), were used. The rates applied for each treatment were 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 g of material per kg of dry soil. At the end of the incubation period, pH in water, pH in CaCl2, exchange bases (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+) and extractable sulfur were determined. The results showed that the San José soil had a pH buffering capacity three times higher than that of the Licantén soil. The linear increase in pH was thus explained by the soil type in relation to the applied rate of CaCO3. The analysis of the increase in the exchangeable Na percentage (ESP) showed that the soils increased up to about 70% of their ESP with the highest added rate of Na2SO4. The application of a mixture of 25% Na2SO4 and 75% CaCO3 resulted in an increase in the ESP close to 15%; therefore, it is not recommended to use mixtures with a Na2SO4 content higher than 25% in these soils. Finally, we affirm that for M2 the maximum recommended dose for application should be 4 Mg ha−1, i.e., 3 g of material per kg of soil.
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Open AccessArticle
Glutamic-N,N-Diacetic Acid as an Innovative Chelating Agent in Microfertilizer Development: Biodegradability, Lettuce Growth Promotion, and Impact on Endospheric Bacterial Communities
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Gulnaz Galieva, Polina Kuryntseva, Svetlana Selivanovskaya, Vasiliy Brusko, Bulat Garifullin, Ayrat Dimiev and Polina Galitskaya
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020067 - 15 Jun 2024
Abstract
The search for new biodegradable fertilizers to increase the productivity of agricultural plants is an urgent task. In this study, a complex microfertilizer was developed based on a chelating agent—glutamic-N,N-diacetic acid (GLDA). The evaluation encompassed assessments of biodegradability and effectiveness in fostering lettuce
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The search for new biodegradable fertilizers to increase the productivity of agricultural plants is an urgent task. In this study, a complex microfertilizer was developed based on a chelating agent—glutamic-N,N-diacetic acid (GLDA). The evaluation encompassed assessments of biodegradability and effectiveness in fostering lettuce plant growth in hydroponic and conventional soil settings. The impact on endospheric bacteria, a sensitive indicator, was also examined. Results indicated a 59.8% degradation rate of the GLDA complex on the 28th day. The most notable positive effects were observed in above-ground plant biomass, with a 4.6-fold increase for hydroponics and 1.5 to 1.8-fold increases for root and foliar treatments in soil. In hydroponics, GLDA-treated plants showed 24 and 45 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) for leaves and 272 and 258 for roots (GLDA-treated and control plants). In soil, the OTU counts were 270 and 101, 221 and 111, and 198 and 116 in the leaves and roots of GLDA-treated and control plants (under root and foliar treatments), respectively. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) demonstrated significant distinctions in endospheric communities between substrates (hydroponics and soil) in the presence of GLDA. Importantly, GLDA use simplified the composition of endospheric bacterial communities.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Fertilizer Technologies and Use to Improve Nutrient Efficiency and Minimize Environmental Impacts)
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Open AccessArticle
Economic and Environmental Assessment of Variable Rate Nitrogen Application in Potato by Fusion of Online Visible and Near Infrared (Vis-NIR) and Remote Sensing Data
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Muhammad Qaswar, Danyal Bustan and Abdul Mounem Mouazen
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020066 - 14 Jun 2024
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Addressing within-field spatial variability for nitrogen (N) management to avoid over and under-use of nitrogen is crucial for optimizing crop productivity and ensuring environmental sustainability. In this study, we investigated the economic, environmental, and agronomic benefits of variable rate nitrogen application in potato
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Addressing within-field spatial variability for nitrogen (N) management to avoid over and under-use of nitrogen is crucial for optimizing crop productivity and ensuring environmental sustainability. In this study, we investigated the economic, environmental, and agronomic benefits of variable rate nitrogen application in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). An online visible and near-infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy sensor was utilized to predict soil moisture content (MC), pH, total organic carbon (TOC), extractable phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) using a partial least squares regression (PLSR) models. The crop’s normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from Sentinel-2 satellite images was incorporated into online measured soil data to derive fertility management zones (MZs) maps after homogenous raster and clustering analyses. The MZs maps were categorized into high fertile (VR-H), medium–high fertile (VR-MH), medium–low fertile (VR-ML), and low fertile (VR-L) zones. A parallel strip experiment compared variable rate nitrogen (VR-N) with uniform rate (UR) treatments, adjusting nitrogen levels based on fertility zones as 50% less for VR-H, 25% less for VR-MH, 25% more for VR-ML, and 50% more for VR-L zones compared to the UR treatment. The results showed that the VR-H zone received a 50% reduction in N fertilizer input and demonstrated a significantly higher crop yield compared to the UR treatment. This implies a potential reduction in negative environmental impact by lowering fertilizer costs while maintaining robust crop yields. In total, the VR-N treatment received an additional 1.2 Kg/ha of nitrogen input, resulting in a crop yield increase of 1.89 tons/ha. The relative gross margin for the VR-N treatment compared to the UR treatment is 374.83 EUR/ha, indicating substantial profitability for the farmer. To further optimize environmental benefits and profitability, additional research is needed to explore site-specific applications of all farm resources through precision agricultural technologies.
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Open AccessArticle
Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks and Soil Organic Matter Persistence under Native Vegetation along a Topographic and Vegetation Gradient in the Central Amazon Region
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Melania Merlo Ziviani, Érika Flávia Machado Pinheiro, Marcos Bacis Ceddia, Ana Carolina Souza Ferreira and Frederico Santos Machado
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020065 - 13 Jun 2024
Abstract
The Amazon Forest has a soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) potential of 126 to 141 Tg year−1 and it depends on soil organic matter (SOM) accumulation factors and stabilization mechanisms. This study aimed to evaluate SOCS, soil nitrogen stocks (SNS), SOM fractions
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The Amazon Forest has a soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) potential of 126 to 141 Tg year−1 and it depends on soil organic matter (SOM) accumulation factors and stabilization mechanisms. This study aimed to evaluate SOCS, soil nitrogen stocks (SNS), SOM fractions under the Amazon Forest along a topographic and vegetation gradient (Terra Firme, River Plain, and Terraces), and to evaluate the main mechanisms responsible for SOM stabilization. The study was developed using 35 study points (35 profiles) in Coari County, Amazon State, Brazil. In each profile, soil samples were collected from soil horizon for soil analysis. Of the 35 soil profiles, 10 were selected to evaluate the contribution of free light fractions (FLF) and intra-aggregate light fractions (ILF), C and N contents, and SOCS and SNS up to 1 m soil depth. SOCS and SNS are influenced by topographic and vegetation gradient, being statistically equal in the Terra Firme and River Plains areas (median of 92.5 and 92.2 Mg C ha−1, respectively), but Terraces presented a greater median (157.9 Mg C ha−1). There are relationships between SOCS and SNS and C, N, Al, clay content, t value, FLF, and ILF. SOCS, SNS, and SOM stabilization in Amazon soils are influenced by soil properties and landscape position. SOCS in the Terrace is mainly in FLF form. If vegetation cover loss continues, an amount of up to 98.05 Mg C ha−1 of FLF can be lost, causing soil degradation and global warming.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter: Recent Advancements in Exploring Its Dynamics, Stabilization and Prediction)
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Open AccessArticle
Ciliated Protist Communities in Soil: Contrasting Patterns in Natural Sites and Arable Lands across Italy
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Daizy Bharti, Santosh Kumar, Charan Kumar Basuri and Antonietta La Terza
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020064 - 13 Jun 2024
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This study represents the first investigation of soil ciliate diversity and community structure in the Marche region, Italy, encompassing both natural sites and agro-ecosystems. The main aims were (i) to assess the ability of ciliates to discriminate between different types of land uses,
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This study represents the first investigation of soil ciliate diversity and community structure in the Marche region, Italy, encompassing both natural sites and agro-ecosystems. The main aims were (i) to assess the ability of ciliates to discriminate between different types of land uses, i.e., arable lands and possible farming management practices [organic (ORG) vs. conventional (CON)], and forest (FOR) sites; and (ii) to investigate the relationships among ciliate communities and abiotic parameters at the studied sites. Soil samples were collected twice from 10 sites (5 forest (FOR) (natural soils) and 5 arable lands under different agricultural management systems (3 ORG (minimum tillage) and 2 CON (sod seeding)). Ciliate communities were studied using qualitative (non-flooded Petri dish) and quantitative methods (ciliate counts from permanent slides). Soil chemical–physical (texture, CEC, N, OM, C/N) parameters were also measured. Qualitative ciliate analysis allowed us to identify a total of 59 species representing 33 genera, 20 families, 13 orders, and 7 classes. ORG sites were the richest in species followed by CON and FOR. Multivariate analysis showed statistically significant differences between natural sites (FOR) and agricultural sites, and between ORG and CON management farming systems. CCA analysis revealed a positive correlation between the ciliate species and silt, clay, and pH in ORG sites, and sand, organic carbon, organic matter, total nitrogen, C/N ratio, and CEC (cation exchange capacity) in FOR sites, suggesting the significance of these parameters in shaping the ciliate communities. Altogether, these results showed the bioindicative potential of ciliate communities in discriminating between natural sites (FOR) and arable lands, and their capacity to discriminate, at least preliminarily, between different soil management systems (ORG vs. CON). Furthermore, this study highlights the high diversity of soil ciliates and their response to habitat variability.
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Open AccessArticle
Fast High-Resolution pKa Spectrotitrimetry for Quantification of Surface Functional Groups of Retisols
by
Natal’ya V. Matveeva, Andrei V. Garmash, Mikhail A. Shishkin, Alexey A. Dymov, Olga B. Rogova, Dmitry S. Volkov and Mikhail A. Proskurnin
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020063 - 12 Jun 2024
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Potentiometric titration in a fast and simultaneously high-resolution modality was proposed for the identification and quantification of protolytic groups of variable strength at the surface of primary soil particles. The method is implemented by titrimetric data processing as multicomponent spectra (pKa
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Potentiometric titration in a fast and simultaneously high-resolution modality was proposed for the identification and quantification of protolytic groups of variable strength at the surface of primary soil particles. The method is implemented by titrimetric data processing as multicomponent spectra (pKa spectrotitrimetry). Due to the high resolution, the error of acidity-constant assessment (3–5%) is lower, compared to existing approaches; due to the fast titration, the effect of soil hydrolysis is minimized. The soil profiles for acidic Retisols (podzolic soils)—under a spruce crown and in the intercrown space—were studied. These soils, which have similar bulk properties and genesis but developed under different plant covers, were distinguished by pKa spectral features at 4–5; 5.5–6.5; 6.5–8.5; 7.5–8.5; and 9–10, as well as total group concentrations. Differences in acidic and basic-group distribution (carboxyl groups, amorphous aluminosilicates, carbonate species, amino groups, soluble (poly)phenolic compounds, phospholipids) and Al and Fe complex compounds within the same soil profiles and between two Retisols were found and quantified. The acidity constants and group concentrations found by pKa spectrotitrimetry were compared with conventional soil-composition indicators (total organic carbon, oxalate-soluble Fe and Al, and phosphorus), using principal component analysis. The main correlations are between the concentrations of oxalate-soluble Al and groups with pKa values of 5.0–6.5 and 8.5; oxalate-soluble Fe and pKa values of 9.0–10.0; and P2O5 and pKa values of 4.0–6.0 and 6.5–8.5. The method provides a set of major acidity values without a priori information on a soil sample and can be used for screening and identifying similar soils.
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Open AccessArticle
Effectiveness of Bacillus paramycoides for Improving Zinc Nutrition of Rice Irrigated with Alkali Water
by
Awtar Singh, Arvind Kumar Rai, Madhu Choudhary, Arijit Barman, Ram Kishor Fagodiya, Rajender Kumar Yadav, Prakash Kumar Jha and Pankaj Kumar Gupta
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020062 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Worldwide zinc deficiency in the soil under cereal production is a common problem affecting the yield and nutritional value of several crops. Bioaugmentation of soil zinc with zinc-solubilizing bacteria can be a promising option for increasing the zinc nutrition to crops. The objectives
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Worldwide zinc deficiency in the soil under cereal production is a common problem affecting the yield and nutritional value of several crops. Bioaugmentation of soil zinc with zinc-solubilizing bacteria can be a promising option for increasing the zinc nutrition to crops. The objectives of the study were to evaluate Bacillus paramycoides for improving yield, zinc nutrition, and zinc availability in rice grown under sodicity stress caused by alkali water irrigation. Treatments included T1: control, T2: substrate, T3: Bacillus paramycoides, T4: control (T1) + zinc sulphate, T5: substrate (T2) + zinc sulphate, and T6: Bacillus paramycoides (T3) + zinc sulphate. Rice yield, zinc content, and uptake, and apparent zinc recovery were not altered by Bacillus paramycoides. The different fractions of zinc measured after 30 and 60 days after transplanting of the rice remain unaffected by the inoculation of Bacillus paramycoides. Further, an equal number of zinc-solubilizing bacteria present in the rice rhizosphere of control plots after 30 days of transplanting suggests the importance of the native rhizospheric microbiome in zinc nutrition. It is concluded that the application of Bacillus paramycoides in sodicity-stressed rice did not provided additional benefits in terms of zinc nutrition and yield. Further investigation will be required to improve the apparent zinc recovery of crops in those areas, where alkali water is continuously utilized for irrigation.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Response to Soil and Water Salinity)
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Verification of the Solid–Liquid Separation of Waterlogged Reduced Soil via a Centrifugal Filtration Method
by
Shatabdi Saha, Kumi Watanabe, Tomoyuki Makino, Hitoshi Kanno, Kazuhiko Kimura and Shin-Ichi Yamasaki
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020061 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
The efficient separation of solid and liquid phases of soil under reductive conditions is of the utmost importance to study soil chemistry and to predict the mobility and bioavailability of nutrients and toxic contaminants in waterlogged reduced soils (WRSs). However, there is no
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The efficient separation of solid and liquid phases of soil under reductive conditions is of the utmost importance to study soil chemistry and to predict the mobility and bioavailability of nutrients and toxic contaminants in waterlogged reduced soils (WRSs). However, there is no established method for efficiently separating the solid and liquid phases of WRS within a short time while maintaining its reductive conditions. This study aimed to verify the applicability of a simple centrifugal filtration method (CFM) for the efficient separation of solid and liquid phases of a WRS and examine the CFM-extracted soil solution to confirm that the reductive condition was maintained during the solid–liquid separation process. Incubation experiments were performed under reductive conditions with or without ethanol/molasses used as additional organic material (OM), while the soil solution was collected by both a suction method and CFM at different centrifugation speeds (700, 2760, and 11,000 rpm) and times (1–7 min). The results showed that the soil pH increased with time while the Eh decreased, indicating that its reducing state was enhanced during the incubation experiments. The addition of OM promoted the reductive conditions in the first days of the experiments. Centrifugation speed, rather than time, was found to be the key to extract the maximum amount of soil solution, while a higher centrifugation speed (11,000 rpm), which represents the permanent wilting point, was found to be most effective for extracting the maximum amount of soil solution. The results exhibited no significant difference in solute (As, Fe(II), and Mn) concentrations when varying amounts of CFM-extracted soil solution were measured. The statistical analysis also indicated no significant (p > 0.05) difference between the solute concentrations in the CFM-extracted soil solution and the solute concentrations in the soil solution extracted by the suction method, confirming that the reductive condition was maintained during solid–liquid separation by CFM. This study suggests that CFM operating at a higher centrifugation speed could potentially be employed as a simple and highly effective technique to efficiently separate the solid and liquid phases of WRS (sandy clay loam) within a short time while maintaining its reductive conditions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Heavy Metals in Soils and Sediments)
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Impact of Pot Farming on Plant-Parasitic Nematode Control
by
Silvia Landi, Beatrice Carletti, Francesco Binazzi, Sonia Cacini, Beatrice Nesi, Emilio Resta, Pio Federico Roversi and Sauro Simoni
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020060 - 30 May 2024
Abstract
In the Pistoia Nursery-Ornamental Rural District (Italy), a leader in Europe in ornamental nurseries covering over 5200 hectares with over 2500 different species of plant, plant-parasitic nematodes represent a serious concern. The potential efficacy of a pot cultivation system using commercial substrates to
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In the Pistoia Nursery-Ornamental Rural District (Italy), a leader in Europe in ornamental nurseries covering over 5200 hectares with over 2500 different species of plant, plant-parasitic nematodes represent a serious concern. The potential efficacy of a pot cultivation system using commercial substrates to control plant-parasitic nematodes was assessed. On two different plant species, two different pot cultivation managements, potted plants, and potted plants previously cultivated in natural soil were compared to plants only cultivated in natural soil. The entire soil nematode structure with and without plants was evaluated. The relationship between soil properties and soil nematode community was investigated. All the studied substrates were free from plant-parasitic nematodes. Regarding free-living nematodes, Peat–Pumice showed nematode assemblage established by colonizer and extreme colonizer bacterial feeders, whereas Peat–Perlite included both bacterial and fungal feeders, and, finally, coconut fiber also included omnivores and predators. In farming, the substrates rich in organic matter such as coconut fiber could still play an important role in suppressing plant-parasitic nematodes because of the abundance of free-living nematodes. In fact, they are of crucial importance in both the mineralization of organic matter and the antagonistic control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Potting systems equally reduce virus-vector nematodes and improve the prey/predator ratio favoring natural control.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Soil Management: Food Supply, Environmental Impacts, and Socioeconomic Functions)
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Determining Drought and Salinity Stress Response Function for Garlic
by
Jean Bosco Nana, Hassan M. Abd El Baki and Haruyuki Fujimaki
Soil Syst. 2024, 8(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems8020059 - 28 May 2024
Abstract
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is an important crop cultivated in arid and semi-arid climates. To quantify the tolerance of garlic to drought and salinity stresses in terms of parameter values of the stress response function, we conducted pot experiments in a greenhouse
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Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is an important crop cultivated in arid and semi-arid climates. To quantify the tolerance of garlic to drought and salinity stresses in terms of parameter values of the stress response function, we conducted pot experiments in a greenhouse for two years. Nine 1/5000a Wagner pots were used for three treatments, namely drought-treated, salinity-treated, and control pots, for estimating the relative transpiration. Daily transpiration rates were observed by weighing pots, and the soil surface of each pot was covered. The soil water contents were measured hourly using two soil moisture probes for drought-treated pots, and two salinity probes for both soil water content and bulk electrical conductivity were monitored for salinity-treated pots. When the ratio of actual to potential transpiration fell below 50%, the root length distributions were obtained by dismantling the pots. The parameter values for both drought-stress and salinity-stress functions were estimated using inverse-analysis and bulk-analysis methods. The parameter values of drought-stress and salinity-stress functions obtained by the simpler and cheaper bulk method gave similar results to the inverse method when the root length distributions were relatively uniform.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Response to Soil and Water Salinity)
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