Reviews & Analysis

High-resolution numerical simulations show that subduction of the Indian plate peeled off the mantle lithosphere from the Tibetan Plateau. This process successfully explains first-order observations of the stepwise growth of the plateau, the migration of magmatism in the region and its seismic properties.

Climate models and paleoclimate proxy records indicate that the absence of preserved eastern Mediterranean organic-rich layers preceding mid-Pliocene glaciation is linked to a pan-North African humid period caused by a more northerly African monsoon front relative to subsequent glacials. The vegetation expansion caused by this humid phase might have influenced early hominin dispersal.

Surface meltwater plays a key role in ice shelf stability, and consequently, Antarctica’s sea level contributions. New satellite observations suggest there is substantially more surface meltwater than previously thought, and models are underestimating it.

Folding-related brittle deformation structures in accretionary wedges may contribute to shallow seismicity in subduction zones, according to a compilation of structural evidence.

The fate of water carried by subducted slabs to the deep Earth remains unclear. Experiments suggest that water is unlikely to escape the slabs when they reach the core–mantle boundary despite high pressures and temperatures.

Chemical regimes of atmospheric secondary inorganic aerosol formation and nitrogen deposition in rural areas of the USA shifted from ammonia-sensitive to ammonia-insensitive between 2011 and 2020, according to analyses of long-term observations. These regime shifts led to a reduction in ammonium in aerosols and increased ammonia deposition near emission hotspots.

A field experiment in Uganda shows how potassium and phosphorus keep leaves functioning during times of water scarcity, highlighting the need to consider ecosystem-scale processes in studying the response of forests to nutrient limitation.

Ongoing climate warming is heating the subsurface. Projections suggest that by the end of the century millions of people will live in areas where groundwater exceeds the highest threshold for drinking water temperatures.

Lakes on the Tibetan Plateau are projected to expand significantly, increasing in area by approximately 50% by 2100 under a low emissions scenario. This expansion will reshape the hydrological connectivity of the lake basins, and submerge a large number of roads, settlements, and ecological components.

The Arctic has warmed almost four times faster than the global average over the past four decades. This fourfold rate of warming is an extraordinary manifestation of natural climate variability and anthropogenic climate change.

Nutrient limitation of marine primary producers will change in complex ways as anthropogenic warming continues, altering global biogeochemical cycles, according to a synthesis of recent studies.

Estuaries are increasingly threatened not only by rising sea levels but also by human interventions which cause changes in sediment supply. Remote sensing data analysis shows that estuarine intertidal area development is associated with minimum turbidity levels, where areas with larger tidal ranges require higher turbidity for their maintenance.

Observations, theory, and modelling reduce the uncertainty in high cloud feedbacks, suggesting a higher climate sensitivity than previously thought.

The causes of symmetrical changes in climate between the Northern and Southern Hemisphere are poorly understood. A geological reconstruction of Patagonian glacial extent reveals that changes in Pacific-wide atmospheric circulation (linked to variations in Earth’s orbit and teleconnections between hemispheres) may have led to nearly synchronous global ice sheet evolution.

The trace-element compositions of mantle-derived basalts suggest that the asthenosphere has two distinct melt layers, with unique chemical compositions and physical properties.

A study using multiple satellite observations shows that the land-surface warming due to tropical forest loss is stronger than the cooling due to tropical forest gain. This effect should be included in Earth system models, particularly as tropical afforestation is considered to be a natural climate solution.

In a part of the Apennines, where the Earth’s crust is thin and heat flow is high, production of CO₂ from deep below the mountains dominates over near-surface weathering processes that consume this greenhouse gas. Ultimately, the magnitude of deep CO₂ release tips the balance towards a landscape that is a net carbon emitter.

Aerosol–cloud interactions are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing. We combined machine learning and long-term satellite observations to quantify aerosol fingerprints on tropical marine clouds, using degassing volcanic events in Hawaii as natural experiences, and found that cloud cover increased relatively by 50% in humid and stable atmosphere, leading to strong cooling radiative forcing.

There are no good models for the chemical evolution of the Earth’s surface over the planet’s lifetime, because models typically overlook the progressive build-up of carbonate rocks in the crust. A new model that includes this accumulation enables the reconstruction of major oxygen and temperature trends throughout Earth’s history.

Human activities have altered the production, transport and fate of mud and associated organic carbon, with important implications for global carbon cycling.