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The reinforcement learning theory suggests that the feedback negativity should be larger when feedback is unexpected. Two recent studies found, however, that the feedback negativity was unaffected by outcome probability. To further examine this issue, participants in the present studies made reward predictions on each trial of a gambling task where objective reward probability was indicated by a cue. In Study 1, participants made reward predictions following the cue, but prior to their gambling choice; in Study 2, predictions were made following their gambling choice. Predicted and unpredicted outcomes were associated with equivalent feedback negativities in Study 1. In Study 2, however, the feedback negativity was larger for unpredicted outcomes. These data suggest that the magnitude of the feedback negativity is sensitive to violations of reward prediction, but that this effect may depend on the close coupling of prediction and outcome.

A two-component event-related brain potential consisting of an error-related negativity (ERN/Ne) and positivity (Pe) has been associated with response monitoring and error detection. Both the ERN and Pe have been source-localized to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)Fa frontal structure implicated in both cognitive and affective processing, as well as autonomic nervous system (ANS) modulation. The current study sought to examine the relationships among the ERN, the Pe, two autonomic measures, and behavior. Electroencephalogram (EEG), heart rate (HR), and skin conductance (SC) were recorded while subjects performed a two-choice reaction-time task. In addition to the characteristic ERN-Pe complex, errors were associated with larger SCRs and greater HR deceleration. The ERN correlated with the number of errors, but was unrelated to ANS activity and compensatory behavior. Pe, on the other hand, was correlated significantly with SCR, and both SCR and Pe were significantly correlated with post-error slowing.Descriptors: Error-related negativity (ERN), Event-related brain potential (ERP), Error processing, Heart rate (HR), Skin conductance response (SCR)

The error-related negativity (ERN) is an event-related brain potential observed when subjects receive feedback indicating errors or monetary losses. Evidence suggests that the ERN is larger for unexpected negative feedback. The P300 has also been shown to be enhanced for unexpected feedback, but does not appear to be sensitive to feedback valence. The present study evaluated the role of expectations on the ERN and P300 in two experiments that manipulated the probability of negative feedback (25%, 50%, or 75%) on a trial-by-trial basis in experiment 1, and by varying the frequency of positive and negative feedback across blocks of trials in experiment 2. In both experiments, P300 amplitude was larger for unexpected feedback; however, the ERN was equally large for expected and unexpected negative feedback. These results are discussed in terms of the potential role of expectations in processing errors and negative feedback.

The error-related negativity (ERN) is an event-related brain potential observed when subjects commit errors. To examine whether the ERN is sensitive to the value of errors, the motivational significance of errors was manipulated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, low and high monetary value errors were compared to evaluate the effect of trial value on the ERN. In Experiment 2, subjects performed a flanker task both while their performance was being evaluated and during a control condition. Consistent with the notion that the error-detection system is sensitive to the significance of errors, the ERN was significantly larger on high-value trials in Experiment 1 and during evaluation in Experiment 2. There were no corresponding effects on the correct response negativity, and no behavioral differences between conditions were evident in either experiment. These results are discussed in terms of the functional role of the ERN in response monitoring.Descriptors: Motivation, Event-related potentials (ERPs), Error-related negativity (ERN), Ne, Value, Affect Effective action monitoring involves appropriate performance adjustments in terms of task demands, and a crucial component of this process is the ability to detect errors and adjust performance accordingly (Falkenstein, Hoormann, Christ, & Hohnsbein, 2000). Studies that measure response-locked eventrelated brain potentials (ERPs) have described fronto-centrally maximal negative components that appear relevant to response monitoring. Perhaps most notably, when subjects make a mistake, the response-locked ERP at fronto-central recording sites is characterized by a negative deflection known as the error-related negativity (ERN or Ne) that peaks approximately 50 ms postresponse (Falkenstein et al., 2000;Falkenstein, Hohnsbein, Hoormann, & Blanke, 1991;Gehring, Coles, Meyer, & Donchin, 1990; Gerhing, Goss, Coles, Meyer, & Donchin, 1993;Holroyd & Coles, 2002;Nieuwenhuis, Ridderinkhof, Blom, Band, & Kok, 2001).Because the ERN has been observed across different stimulus and response modalities, it is thought to reflect the activity of a generic response monitoring system (Bernstein, Scheffers, & Coles, 1995;Dehaene, Posner, & Tucker, 1994;Falkenstein et al., 1991Falkenstein et al., , 2000Holroyd, Dien, & Coles, 1998;Luu, Flaisch, & Tucker, 2000;Miltner, Braun, & Coles, 1997;Van 't Ent & Apkarian, 1999). Studies utilizing source localization suggest that the ERN is generated in the medial frontal cortex, most likely the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC; Dehaene et al., 1994;Holroyd et al., 1998;Miltner et al., 1997).In addition to the ERN, a small negative deflection has also been observed in the response-locked ERP on correct trials. This correct response negativity (CRN) appears to have morphological and topographical properties similar to the ERN (Vidal, Burle, Bonnet, Grapperon, & Hasbroucq, 2003;Vidal, Hasbroucq, Grapperon, & Bonnet, 2000). Although the functional significance of the CRN is unknown, the similarities between the ERN and CRN suggest that both compon...

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