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<Fuche Naw or Anong [ɑ˧˩nuŋ˧˥] (Derung: Vnung [ə˧˩nuŋ˥˧]),> is a language spoken in the Fúgòng County of the Nujiang Lisu Prefecture of the Yunnan Province located in southwestern China and areas of Myanmar.[1][2] <It is also spoken in Kachin State, Myanmar*edited from existing page.> Anong is spoken by the Anong subgroup of the Nu ethnic group.[1] Although there is no traditional formal writing system, the Anong of Myanmar have recently developed one[1]:3, footnote, as suggested by the existence of other written texts that are almost mutually intelligible with some phonological and lexical differences.[1]:3,16

It is estimated that there are fewer than 400 speakers of Anong left, and the language is considered seriously endangered.[1] Ethnologue marks Anong as a level 8a language or moribund, meaning that the only active users of the language are of the grandparent generation or older. This means that neither the parent generation nor their children know or are acquiring Anong, so the language is no longer being passed down to future generations.[2] Many speakers of Anong are shifting away from their native language to Lisu, Chinese, and Bai <although the speakers are being classified as Nu nationality>.[1]:9

Anong is genetically classified as a part of the Jingpo subgroup of the Tibeto-Burman language within the larger Sino-Tibetan language family.[1]:8

Other names for Anong include Anoong, Anu, Anung, Fuch’ye, Fuchve, Khingpang, Kwingsang, Kwinp’ang, Naw, Nawpha, and Nu.[2]

<Anong language is closely related to the Derung and Rawang languages.>


Demographics (section from the existing page)

[edit]

(There seems to be some disagreement between different sources about which people actually constitute the Anong people and also which languages constitute the Anong language. My grammar says that there have been written texts similar to what the grammar considers Anong, but it's not completely the same, so it seems like my grammar's boundaries on the Anong language are considerably more strict than those represented in the existing Wikipedia page. However, because the statistics on Ethnologue match those of my grammar much better than the 7000+ speakers written on the current Wikipedia page, I decided to (at least in my sandbox) exclude the statistics from the current page from my sandbox. For that reason also, I didn't include the rest of the discussion on demographics either, because it discusses details that are in contradiction with my grammar.)

Phonology

[edit]

Anong has maintained much of the sound structure of its original Tibeto-Burman character, although many of the more complex sounds and governing patterns are now simplified.[1]:19

Vowels

[edit]

Anong has ten simple vowel phonemes, plus a series of nasalized vowels, and a host of complex vowel phonemes.[1]:23

The vowel phonemes are as follows: /i/, /y/, /u/, /ɯ/, /e/, /o/, /ɛ/, /ɑ/, /a/, and the apical vowel /ɿ/.

Several of the vowels vary slightly from their standard IPA values, as listed in the following:[1]:23

  • The /i/ vowel is more open than the standard IPA /i/.
  • The /e/ vowel is slightly lower than the standard IPA /e/, with a sound that approaches /æ/.
  • The /ɛ/ vowel is slightly more center and open than the standard IPA /ɛ/.
  • The /u/ and /o/ vowels are slightly more open than their standard counterparts.
  • The /ɯ/ is more center and open than the standard IPA /ɯ/.

The vowels /i/, /e/, /ɛ/, /a/, /ɑ/, /ɯ/, /u/, and /o/ have nasalized counterparts, along with a few nasalized diphthongs /iɛ̃/, /iã/, /iɑ̃/, /uɛ̃/, and /uɑ̃/.[1]:25 Contrastive nasalized vowels are a relatively new phenomenon in Anong phonology.[1]:25 For example, the word 'lɑ33' translates to 'to look for, seek', while 'lɑ̃31' becomes 'to swim'.[1]:25

Anong has an additional 22 complex vowels, 20 of which are diphthongs and two of which are triphthongs.

Complex Vowels
Instantiation
Diphthongs with /i/, /u/, /y/ Onset /ie/, /iɛ/, /ia/, /iɑ/, /io/, /iu/, /iɯ/, /ui/, /ue/, /uɛ/, /ua/, /uɑ/, /yi/, /ye/, /yɛ/, /ɯi/, /ɿu/
Diphthongs with /i/, /u/ Coda /ei/, /ɑi/, /ɑu/
Triphthongs /iɑu/, /uɑi/

Complex vowels occur only with low frequency.[1]:27 Triphthongs only occur in Chinese loanwords, which suggests that complex vowels might be relatively new in Anong as a result of Lisu and Chinese influence.[1]:27

Consonants

[edit]

Anong has 47 single initial consonants, including two multi-place consonants and nine affricates .[1] There are seven places of articulation, and five manners.[1] Single-place non-affricates are represented in the table below. The right column within each place of articulation represents a voiced constant. The -h mark indicates an aspirated consonant. (The consonant table below was taken from the existing page to replace the one I had.)

Labial Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal voiceless ɳ̥ ɲ̥ ŋ̊
voiced m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
Plosive aspirated ʈʰ
tenuis p t ʈ k ʔ
voiced b d ɖ ɡ
Affricate aspirated tsʰ tʂʰ tɕʰ
tenuis ts
voiced dz ɖʐ
Fricative voiceless f s ʂ ɕ x h
voiced v z ʐ ʑ ɣ
Lateral voiceless
voiced l ɭ
Rhotic voiced ɹ

The consonant /ɹ/ is an unstable semi-vowel and is realized as a voiced alveolar fricative or voiced alveolar retroflex fricative.[1]:20

Additionally, Anong has 23 initial consonant clusters, which are categorized based on the presence of certain phonetic units.[1]:22

Consonant Clusters[1]:22
Instantiation
Retroflex Semi-Vowel Second /pɹ/, /phɹ/, /bɹ/, /mɹ/, /fɹ/, /vɹ/, /khɹ/, /gɹ/, /xɹ/
Preglottalized Onsets /ʔb/, /ʔd/, /ʔɖ/, /ʔg/, /ʔdz/, /ʔdʐ/, /ʔdʑ/, /ʔm/, /ʔn/, /ʔl/, /ʔɳ/, /ʔȵ/, /ʔŋ/
Preglottalized Onset and Retroflex-Semi-Vowel Second /ʔbɹ/

Use of consonant clusters has decreased and only appears in the speech of elderly speakers of Anong.[1]: 22

Tone

[edit]

There are five tones in Anong: 55, 33, 53, 31, and 35. The distinction between each of the tones varies, depending on surrounding tones. Tones 35 and 53 appear relatively infrequently.[1]:30

Tones[1]:30
Tone Number Tone Description Instantiation Translation Instantiation Translation
55 high level tɕʰuŋ55 '(earthen) jar' lim55 'bake, roast'
53 high falling tɕʰuŋ53 'straight; press' lim53 'egg'
33 mid level tɕʰuŋ33 'to play on swing' lim33 'turn on (water)'
31 mid falling tɕʰuŋ31 'dig up' lim31 'bury'
35 mid rising ɑ31tɕʰuŋ35 'to fish' lim35 'lay (egg)'

There are no clear systematic rules for tone sandhi in Anong.[1]

Syllable Structure

[edit]

Syllables in Anong are comprised of three parts: an initial (onset), a rhyme (vowel plus the accompanying coda), and a tone. Some syllables lack initials but minimally must contain at least one sound (either a vowel or a syllabic consonant) and maximally contain five.[1]:31

The general syllable is as follows: (C)(C)(C)(V)V(V)(C)T.[1] (C = consonant, V = vowel, T = tone)

Out of this general form, there are 14 possible permutations, represented in the table below.

Syllable Structures[1]:31
Template Instantiation Translation
C 31 'not'
V o31 'carry on back' (CLF.)
VV 31 'seed'
VVV iɑu55tɕʰɯ31 'demand'
CV 55 'white'
CVV ɑ31xuɑ35 'go mad'
CVVV phiɑu35 'ticket'
CCV phɹɿ55 'dig'
CCVC ʔdɛm55 'on credit'
CCCVC ɕɑ55ʔbɹɯn35 'step across'
VC in55 'to sweat'
VVC iɑŋ31 'item (thing)', CLF.
CVC sɑn55 'slaughter'
CVVC giɛn35 'exist'; 'to mail'

(CLF = classifier)

Of the 14 syllabic structures, VVV and CVVV only occur in Chinese loans. CCCVC occurs extremely infrequently, while the most frequent are V, VV, CV, CVV, VC, VVC, and CVC.[1]:31

Anong frequently uses weakened syllables, which are short and indistinct, normally with a 31 tone, and consist of a reduced simple vowel without a coda.[1]:31

The Anong lexicon is becoming increasingly bi or polysyllabic.[1]:31

Morphology

[edit]

As a member of the Tibeto-Burman language family, Anong shares many grammatical characteristics with the languages in this family, including an extensive classifier system, postposed auxiliaries, and grammatical particles.[1]:55

Anong has characteristics of both a polysynthetic agglutinating and a fusional language.[1]:55 Words in Anong can be classified as one of eleven categories: nouns, numerals, classifiers and measure words, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, mood particles, interjections, and particles.[1]

A morphological process through which words are built is affixation.[1] Anong is particularly rich in prefixes, which are comprised exclusively of single vowels with no consonant endings.[1]:44 However, most prefixes meanings are difficult to identify, especially the meaning of prefixes derived from consonant cluster reduction.[1]:47 Suffix functions are clearer.[1]:47

Derivational Affixes

[edit]

Affixes are a critical part of word formation in Anong.

There are ten common prefixes used, including 'phɯ31', 'bɯ31', 'mɯ31', 'sɿ31' (marks the causative), 'ʂɿ31', 'dɯ31' (sometimes manifested as 'di31'), 'ɹɯ31' (sometimes 'ʐɯ31' or 'zɿ31'), 'ŋ̩̩31' (also 'ʔo31' and 'ʔŋ̩31', one of the most productive prefixes), 'ɑ31' (most productive prefix), and 'i55' (sometimes 'i55' or 'i31') along with many other lower frequency prefixes, for example, 'pɯ31', 'tshɿ31', 'dzɿ31', 'tɯ31', 'thɯ31', 'ɖɯ31', 'tɕhi31', 'dʑi31', 'ɕi31', 'ȵi31', 'kɯ31', 'khɯ31', and 'gɯ31'.[1]:47 No specific meanings are given for these prefixes in the grammar.[1]:44-47

There are seven commonly used suffixes.

Suffixes used in Word Formation[1]47-50
Suffix Function Instantiation Translation
su55 nominalizer, derives noun referencing actor of verb, 'person' sɿ31lɑm55su55 'teacher'
phɯ31 nominalizer, derives noun referencing actor of verb, 'person' po31 phɯ31 'guarantor'; 'sponsor'
dɛm55 nominalizer, derives noun referencing thing that is used for a function, occurs with verb-noun (VN) compounds 33xuŋ55 (cloth) + zɑn53 (weave) + -dɛm55 'loom'
kha55 combines with nouns of places, times, directions to refer to locations and times 55ʂu31khɑ55 'in front'; 'front'
ɛ55 or ɛ31 stative adjectives ȵɯŋ31ɛ31 'deep'
za55 occurs on human nouns, refers to young people sɿ31lɑŋ5555 'girl'
ua31 occurs on adjectives and other words, derives adverbial expressions kha3155 33 'quiet'; 'stealthily'

Note the tonal shift in the suffix in the last row.

There are also a number of additional nominalizers. Verb nominalizers can combine with both verbs and verb-object phrases. When verb-object phrases are nominalized, the derived noun means 'the thing used to perform the verb'.[1]:89 One non-verb nominalizer is -u31, which is used to turn adjectives into nouns. For example, in the following sentence, the adjective 'soft' becomes the noun 'the soft (one)':[1]:97


ɐ31ɲɐ̃31

'soft'

u31

nominalizer

ɳɯ31ɐ55

DEF

ɐ31ɲɐ̃31 u31 ɳɯ31ɐ55

'soft' nominalizer DEF

'The light (one) is cotton'

Derivational affixes can be used in combination with other morphological processes in order to transition certain words from one part of speech to another.[1]

Inflectional Affixes

[edit]

Inflectional affixes play a wide variety of different roles in Anong, depending on the part of speech of the root.[1] In nouns, for example, there are two pluralizing suffixes 'zɿ31ɳɯ31' (animate nouns only) and 'mɯ53' (both animate and inanimate nouns).

Pluralizing Suffixes[1]:55
Suffix Root Root Translation Instantiation Translation
zɿ31ɳɯ31 ŋuɑ55 'fish' ŋuɑ55zɿ31ɳɯ31 'fish (plural)'
53 ʂɿ55dzɯŋ55 'tree' 'ʂɿ55dzɯŋ5553 'trees'

Noun possession is indicated by possessive prefixes, which are different depending on the person of the possessor.

Possessive Prefixes[1]:56
Person Prefix Root Root Translation Instantiation Translation
First Person ɑ31 phɯ31 'father' ɑ31phɯ31 'my father'
Second Person ɳɯ31 ɳɯ31phɯ31 'your father'
Third Person ŋ31 ŋ31phɯ31 'his father'

There is also a general possessive prefix 'khɑ31' that is supplemented by a person marker indicating the difference between first, second, and third person.[1]:58

For nouns, gender and diminutives are also marked off with suffixes.[1]:59

For verbs, affixation is used to indicate agreement in person and number with the subject. All persons (e.g. first person singular, second person dual, first person plural exclusive, etc.) have different sets of prefixes, suffixes, or both to indicate agreement.[1]:77-78 In some cases, when the subject is third person, and the object and modifier are first or second person, the verb matches the object/modifier, a process called inverse marking.[1]:78


Inverse Marking

ɳɐ31

2nd

phu31

'to blow (on a fire)'

ɳɰ31

2PL

ɳɐ31 phu31 ɳɰ31

2nd {'to blow (on a fire)'} 2PL

'To blow on a fire'

(2PL is a suffix added to a verb when the subject is third person and the object and its modifier are second person plural; the verb matches the object instead of the subject.[1]:80)


There are many other functions of affixations in verbs, some that occur with other morphological processes. Five aspects are marked by suffixation on verbs: future progressive, present progressive, perfect progressive, experiential, and perfective.[1]:80 Three voices are marked by affixation and internal verb root changes: reflexive (middle), causative, and reciprocal.


Reciprocal Causative

ɐ31

Reciprocal

ɕi31

Causative

dʑɰŋ31

'believe'

ɐ31 ɕi31 dʑɰŋ31

Reciprocal Causative 'believe'

'Cause to believe each other'

(There are several other prefixes that are used to indicate causal relationships.[1]:84)


Indicative, imperative, and optative moods are marked by affixation or by voicing alternations of initials on verb roots.[1]:85 Direction is expressed through suffixation, and emphasizes the distinction between centrifugal (motion toward the center of action, usually the place of the speech act) and centripetal directions (motion away from the center of action, usually the speech act).[1]:87-88 Some auxiliary verbs are also expressed as verbal suffixes, although they contain specific meanings and can occur alone in special contexts.[1]:92

Similar richness of affixational function exists across all other parts of speech.

Particles

[edit]

Particles play a role in marking different grammatical relations. There are plural particles on nouns, approximative particles on numerals, and adverbial particles on manner adverbs.[1]:100 All particles are postpositional and can be divided based on function into possessive, agentive, object, instrumental, temporal, locative, ablative, comparative, comitative, and definite particles.[1]:100


Possessive Particle

phɑ55dzɑ5531

older.brother

ni55

POSS

hɛn31

child

phɑ55dzɑ5531 ni55hɛn31

older.brother POSS child

'Older brother's child'[1]: 101 


Adverbial particles such as 'li31', 'ʂɿ31', and 'uɑ33' are used to derive adverbs or adverb constructions.[1]:107

Mood particles are also used to indicate mood and are used at high frequency in daily conversation, normally at the end of utterances.[1]:108 They include the interrogative particle 'mɛ53', the exhortative particle 'lɑ35', the rhetorical particle 'ɖɑ53', the countering particle 'le53', and the supplicative particle 'lie31'.[1]:108-110

Compounding

[edit]

Compounding is the primary way through which new words are formed in Anong.[1]:50 There are five primary compounding processes.[1]:50-51


1. Co-ordinate Compounds

ɐ31pʰɐ31

+

ɐ3131

ɐ31pʰɐ31ɐ3131

ɐ31pʰɐ31 + ɐ3131 → ɐ31pʰɐ31ɐ3131

'father' + 'mother' → 'parents' [1]: 50 

There is no modified-modifying relationship between the two roots being compounded. The number of co-ordinate compounds in Anong is relatively small.[1]


2. Modified-Modifying and Modifying-Modified Compounds

31tɕɐ55

+

pʰɯn55

31tɕɐ55pʰɯn55

31tɕɐ55 + pʰɯn55 → lɐ31tɕɐ55pʰɯn55

'tea' + 'circular' → 'bowl shaped tea leaves' [1]: 50 

One of the roots in modified when they are combined. Most compounds in Anong are of this type.[1] The above example is modified-modifying, though the reverse is also possible.


3. Noun-Complement Compounds

ɕɯŋ55

+

tʰɐn55

ɕɯŋ55tʰɐn55

ɕɯŋ55 + tʰɐn55 → ɕɯŋ55tʰɐn55

'firewood' + 'section' → 'wood' [1]: 51 

The first element in these compounds is the noun center, and the complement is a classifier, and is technically a type of modified-modifying compound.[1] This type of compounding is relatively productive.[1]


4. Verb-Object Compounds

33

+

tɕʰɯŋʔ55

33tɕʰɯŋʔ55

33 + tɕʰɯŋʔ55 → lɐ33tɕʰɯŋʔ55

'hand' + 'bind around' → 'bracelet' [1]: 51 

Objects precede verbs in verb phrases in Anong, which is typical of Tibeto-Burman languages. This order is reflected in verb-object compounds.[1]


5. Subject-Verb Compounds

ʔa31xa35

+

di31ʂɐ31

ʔa31xa35di31ʂɐ31

ʔa31xa35 + di31ʂɐ31 → ʔa31xa35di31ʂɐ31

'foot' + 'lame' → 'lame person' [1]: 51 

(There was a note about this on my second draft about this section needing reorganizing. I did try to address this but decided to stick with the order given in my grammar in the end.)

Four-Syllable Elaborate Expressions

[edit]

Four-syllable elaborate expressions word formation processes are exclusive to Sino-Tibetan languages, and almost all Sino-Tibetan languages have them. They are very productive in Anong, as a result of expressive storytelling.[1]:51

There are five types of these expressions.

Types of Four-Syllable Elaborate Expressions in Anong[1]:51-52
Type Instantiation Translation
AABB mɑŋ31mɑŋ31ȵim31ȵim31 'bumpy'; 'rough'
ABAB 31hɑ5531hɑ55 'whisper in someone's ear'
ABAC 31thɑŋ3531phɑŋ35 'high and low, from top to bottom'
ABCB khɑ55gɑm5531gɑm55 describes the unhappy state of indeterminacy
ABCD ɑ31kh31ʔo55ho31 'each look after one's self'

Reduplication[1]

[edit]

Full reduplication is found in nouns, verbs, adverbs, and especially on adjectives in Anong but is not productive.[1]:52 However, it still is used for word formation, for example, with adverbials that turn adjectives into adverbs.

ɳɐ31

'you'

31

'full'

-gɐ31

-Reduplication

33li31

ADV

pʰɯ31

PRT

ɛm53

'eat'

ɳɐ3131 -gɐ3133li31 pʰɯ31 ɛm53

'you' 'full' -Reduplication ADV PRT 'eat'

'You eat enough' [1]: 99 

(pʰɯ31 is the masculine gender affix. PRT indicates a particle. ADV is the adverbial.[1]:99)

Similarly:

ŋ31

'he'

ɐ31ɲɐ̃31

'light'

31ɲɐ̃31

-Reduplication

33li31

ADV

tʰi31zɿm33

'speak'

31

-IND

ŋ31 ɐ31ɲɐ̃3131ɲɐ̃3133li31 tʰi31zɿm3331

'he' 'light' -Reduplication ADV 'speak' -IND

'He speaks softly' [1]: 99 

(IND marks the indicative mood.[1]:85)


In these cases, when adjectives are used as adverbials, the adjective is reduplicated and the adverbial suffix ADV is added to indicate the new function. This is an instance of affixation and other morphological processes combining for one function.

Adjectives and adverbs are also reduplicated to indicate intensity, and some reduplications occur in tandem with additional modifications like tonal changes, vowel changes, or final changes.[1]:95,100 The adjective 'yellow', for example, 'phu55' becomes 'very yellow' when reduplicated into 'phu55phu55'.

Imitation

[edit]

Some words are created through the imitation of sounds in the real world.[1] Some animals are named after the sounds that they make. For example, 'mã35', which is the Anong word for 'moo' is also the word for 'cow'.[1]:53 Sounds taken from imitations of animals and motions are often used as adverbs.[1]

Syntax

[edit]

Word Order

[edit]

The basic word order in Anong is SOV, as illustrated by the following three sentences.[1]:113

ɑ3155

'goat'

ŋ31kʰɯ55

'horn'

io55

'have'

31

IND

ɑ3155 ŋ31kʰɯ55 io5531

'goat' 'horn' 'have' IND

'Goats have horns.' [1]: 113 

(IND marks the indicative mood.[1]:85)


ŋ31ɳɯŋ55

'they'

kʰɛn33

'vegetable'

vɛn35

'buy'

55

IND

-uɑ55

FUT.HS‍

ŋ31ɳɯŋ55 kʰɛn33 vɛn3555 -uɑ55

'they' 'vegetable' 'buy' IND FUT.HS‍

'They are going to buy vegetables (hearsay).' [1]: 80 

(FUT.HS is future hearsay.)


ɑ31io31

'I'

ɑ55

DEF

mi53

AGT

ŋ̩31

'he'

kʰɑ31

OBJ

ɑ31ȵɛŋ33

beat.1SG

31

IND

ɑ31io31 ɑ55 mi53 ŋ̩31 kʰɑ31 ɑ31ȵɛŋ3331

'I' DEF AGT 'he' OBJ beat.1SG IND

'I beat him.' [1]: 114 

(DEF is the definite marker. AGT is the agentive marker. OBJ is the object marker. 1SG indicates first person singular.)

However, Anong has no passive voice, and the order of the object and subject is flexible when the subject and object are grammatically marked, although it is not necessarily the case that they are always marked.[1]:114 For illustration, the third example could be re-written as follows:

ŋ̩31

'he'

kʰɑ31

OBJ

ɑ31io31

'I'

ɑ55

DEF

mi53

AGT

ɑ31ȵɛŋ33

beat.1SG

31

IND

ŋ̩31 kʰɑ31 ɑ31io31 ɑ55 mi53 ɑ31ȵɛŋ3331

'he' OBJ 'I' DEF AGT beat.1SG IND

'I beat him.' [1]: 114 

Attributive Markers

[edit]

Anong has two kinds of attributive markers.[1]:114 Nouns and pronouns acting as attributives occur before the head noun, usually without the possessive marker. Adjectives, numerals, and classifiers acting as attributives occur after the head noun.[1]:114-115


Dominant Modifier Order

ŋ31

'he'

pronoun

ɑ31khɑŋ31

'grandfather'

noun

3131

'clothes'

head noun

55

'new'

adjective

55

'that'

 

ɑ31ȵi55

'two'

numeral

thɑm55

CLF

classifier

ŋ31 ɑ31khɑŋ3131315555 ɑ31ȵi55 thɑm55

'he' 'grandfather' 'clothes' 'new' 'that' 'two' CLF

pronoun noun {head noun} adjective {} numeral classifier

'those two articles of clothing of his grandfather's' [1]: 115 

Sometimes adjectives with two or more syllables or nominalized adjectives that are used as modifiers occur before the head noun.[1]:115

Adverbials

[edit]

Adverbials usually occur before the predicate but can come after. Adverbials normally come after any other elements that are before the predicate. Temporal and locative adverbials have flexible word order and can come before the predicate and after the object, after the subject and before the object, or after the subject.[1]:116


Adverbial Order

55ʂɿ55khɑ55

'tonight'

temporal adverbial

ŋ31ɳɯŋ55

'they'

 

thɑ31luʔ55

'maybe'

adverbial

him31

'house'

 

31

NEG

adverbial

ʈhɑŋ33iɯŋ55

'return'

 

55ʂɿ55khɑ55 ŋ31ɳɯŋ55 thɑ31luʔ55him3131 ʈhɑŋ33iɯŋ55

'tonight' 'they' 'maybe' 'house' NEG 'return'

{temporal adverbial} {} {adverbial} {} {adverbial} {}

'Tonight they may not return home.' [1]: 116 

(NEG marks negation.)

Adverbials occurring after predicates are rare.[1]:116

Sentence Structure

[edit]

Simple sentences are categorized based on structure and mood. The categories of simple sentences include declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, requests, exclamations, and estimations.[1]:117-118

Complex sentences are divided into two main categories: compound sentences and sentences with a main-subordinate clause structure. Compound sentences include contrastive compounds, relative contrast compounds, and successive compounds.[1]:118-121


Contrastive Compound Sentence

ɑ31io31

'I'

ɑ55

DEF

55-o55

big-NOM

thi55

one

31

CLF

vɛn33

buy

thɑm5531

CONT-IND

dʑɯŋ55

ASP

ɑ31

ASP

ŋ̩31

he

ɑ55

DEF

hɛm31-o55

small-NOM

thi55

one

31

CLF

vɛn33

buy

thɑm5531

CONT-IND

dʑɯ31

ASP

ɑ31.

ASP

ɑ31io31 ɑ5555-o55 thi5531 vɛn33 thɑm5531 dʑɯŋ55 ɑ31 ŋ̩31 ɑ55hɛm31-o55 thi5531 vɛn33 thɑm5531 dʑɯ31 ɑ31.

'I' DEF big-NOM one CLF buy CONT-IND ASP ASP he DEF small-NOM one CLF buy CONT-IND ASP ASP

‘I bought a big one and he bought a small one.’ [1]: 119 


Relative Contrast Compound Sentence

mo31guŋ55dʑɑŋ31

'Mùgǔjiǎ'

55khɑ31

'here'

khɯŋ31ne55

ABL

hɿ55

'relative'

thi31ɹɯm33

'far'

ɛ31,

IND

mo31guŋ55dʑɑŋ31

'Mùgǔjiǎ'

khɯŋ31ne55

ABL

duŋ35ɕuɑ55

'Gòng Mt.'

khɑ31

LOC

31ʂɿ31

'very'

thi31ɹɯm55

'far'

ɛ31.

IND

mo31guŋ55dʑɑŋ3155khɑ31 khɯŋ31ne55hɿ55 thi31ɹɯm33 ɛ31, mo31guŋ55dʑɑŋ31 khɯŋ31ne55 duŋ35ɕuɑ55 khɑ3131ʂɿ31 thi31ɹɯm55 ɛ31.

'Mùgǔjiǎ' 'here' ABL 'relative' 'far' IND 'Mùgǔjiǎ' ABL {'Gòng Mt.'} LOC 'very' 'far' IND

‘It is relatively far from here to Mùgǔjiǎ, and it is even farther from Mùgǔjiǎ to the Gòngshān area.’ [1]: 119 


Successive Compound Sentence

ŋ̩31

'he'

sɑŋ55

'strength'

31ʂɿ31

'very'

ɑ3155,

'have',

thi31

'one'

ɕɑ55

'hundred'

gɑm55

'catty'

31ʈhɑŋ55

'excess'

55

'also'

zɿ35

carry.on.back

dʑo31

can

ɛ31.

IND

ŋ̩31 sɑŋ5531ʂɿ31 ɑ3155, thi31 ɕɑ55 gɑm5531ʈhɑŋ5555 zɿ35 dʑo31 ɛ31.

'he' 'strength' 'very' 'have', 'one' 'hundred' 'catty' 'excess' 'also' carry.on.back can IND

'He is very strong, and can carry over a hundred catties (= 50 kilograms) on his back.' [1]: 119 


Main-subordinate clause sentences include transitional, cause-and-result, conditional, concessive, temporal sequence, and complex relation sentences.[1]:118-121



  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db Sun, Hongkai. (2009). A grammar of Anong : language death under intense contact. Liu, Guangkun., Li, Fengxiang., Thurgood, Ela., Thurgood, Graham. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789047430308. OCLC 607555112.
  2. ^ a b c "Anong". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-04-23.