4.1. Mapping of the Business Articles on the COVID-19 Management
The mapping of the selected articles provides an overview of the publications on the subject, in particular regarding the sectors and regions covered, the objectives of the articles, and the focus on certain themes, in particular corporate sustainability.
Activity sectors were derived by combining multiple governmental lists from North America and Europe to obtain a comprehensive list of 26 activity sectors, which were further combined into nine main activity sectors for presentation purposes. The analysis of the sectors covered by the articles shows the great diversity of activities and companies that have been involved in managing the COVID-19 crisis (see
Table 1). Some articles mentioned multiple companies in more than one sector. The analysis also illustrates the scale of this crisis, which has an impact on all sectors of activity. However, some of the sectors most affected by the pandemic were mentioned more frequently. This is particularly the case for individual and business services (43% of articles), transportation (24%), communication (22%), and agriculture and food (21%), which have been particularly affected by shutdown measures and have had to adapt quickly, in particular by setting up telework, online sales, and delivery services.
The regions covered by the articles (see
Figure 2) were mainly North America (38%) and Europe (28%). This concentration of coverage on certain regions was mainly due to the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the articles, particularly with regard to the languages (i.e., English and French). However, about one-third of the articles had an international perspective and focused on measures implemented in various countries or at the global level by large companies.
The analysis of the main objectives of the articles studied highlights their foci and also some issues closely related to the management of the pandemic (see
Figure 3). The implications of the crisis in terms of corporate social responsibility and sustainability management were the most frequently mentioned and represented the main objective of 29% of the articles. More specifically, about two-thirds of the articles directly analyzed, or indirectly mentioned, the implications of the pandemic in terms of corporate social responsibility (CSR) or corporate sustainability (e.g., the need to strengthen the social responsibility of organizations, to review sustainable development policies, to be more responsive to stakeholders, to prioritize employee health over short-term economic objectives, etc.), even if these implications were not necessarily the main objective of the documents. While all the articles mentioned one or more example of how organizations are dealing with the pandemic, the main objective of almost a quarter of the articles was to identify and share good practices. These good practices are detailed below and cover many dimensions, including good governance, compensation, work reorganization, and various measures to help businesses managing COVID-19. About 23% of the articles focused on the difficulties encountered by companies in managing the crisis. The rest of the articles were essentially focused on the economic challenges of the pandemic, including exploiting the opportunities related to the crisis and preparing for or managing business resumption (see
Figure 3).
4.2. Opportunities and Threats of the Pandemic
Pandemic management practices are often contextualized in relation to the opportunities and threats arising from the crisis. While the negative economic impacts of the pandemic have been widely covered in the news, the crisis has also resulted in some positive effects for many organizations. Approximately 31% of all articles (76 out of 246) analyzed highlighted these positive effects and provided various examples of how companies can benefit from them (see
Table 2). Unsurprisingly, the economic opportunities arising from the crisis were mentioned in 56 articles. The emergence of new markets and the need for companies to be responsive to changes in consumer needs and habits were illustrated by various examples, such as the development of e-commerce, increased demand for organic and local products, and the growth of delivery services, among others. The importance of businesses’ ability to turn a threat into an opportunity was often stressed. This capacity was illustrated by various examples, such as that of certain fitness companies that have managed to significantly increase their revenue by developing app-based and online classes in order to take advantage of the restrictions affecting a large part of the population. Similarly, 18 articles underlined job creation and other positive effects (e.g., increased profits, improved productivity of organizations) that result in particular from the growth of certain markets during shutdown episodes. For example, companies involved in the home delivery of meals were frequently mentioned, including recruitment announcements for 30,000 jobs at Pizza Hut, 20,000 jobs at Papa John’s, 10,000 jobs at Chipotle Mexican Grill, and so forth. Security services, such as Securitas, have also announced the creation of thousands of jobs to respond to the safety concerns of many Americans in times of economic and social instability. Job creation announcements by some major essential retail chains, such as Walmart (150,000 hires), CVS (50,000), and Dollar General (50,000), show that some companies have been less affected than others by the crisis, even if the jobs announced are most often precarious and poorly paid. Some articles highlighting positive effects mentioned issues related to sustainable development, in particular many corporate leaders’ awareness of the importance of paying more attention to their employees’ physical health and mental well-being (mentioned in eight articles) and the reduction of air pollution (two articles). According to seven articles, the pandemic has significantly increased corporate ESG commitment. Among other things, socially responsible investments (SRIs) were reported to have been more resilient than others in times of crisis, and a growing number of investors are taking into account sustainable development issues, particularly social issues (e.g., health, stakeholder expectations, community commitments), which tends to favor organizations that have made substantial commitments in this area.
The threats and negative impacts of the pandemic were mentioned in proportions quite similar to those of the positive impacts (22% of the articles analyzed; 54 out of 246). The description of these negative impacts (see
Table 3) is useful for putting into context the practices implemented by businesses to try to cope with them. Not surprisingly, the most frequently mentioned negative impacts included layoffs (temporary or permanent) and voluntary departures that were made during the pandemic. Layoffs, mentioned in 30 articles, concern most business sectors, particularly those where social distancing is more difficult to apply, such as non-essential retail (layoffs of 85,000 employees at Kohl’s, the majority of the 125,000 employees at Macy’s, and 14,000 employees at Urban Outfitters), transportation (layoffs of 20,000 employees at Air Canada and 2600 employees at GE Aviation), and entertainment (layoffs of 26,000 employees at AMC Theatres and 2600 employees at Cirque du Soleil). Logistical problems, particularly supply chain disruption and product wastage, were mentioned in 16 articles. Most sectors seem to be concerned by the shutdown of suppliers or the sudden imbalance between supply and demand for certain products. This imbalance has led to a significant waste of certain commodities. For example, during the shutdown, Dairy Farmers of America, one of the main American dairy cooperatives, destroyed almost 14 million liters of milk per day due to the closure of canteens and restaurants which accounted for a significant part of its sales. Nine articles also mentioned wage reduction measures that had to be put in place to respond to the economic pressures caused by the crisis. Labor shortages due to rapidly increasing absenteeism or sales growth in certain sectors were mentioned in seven articles. Absenteeism at Amazon’s warehouses was reported to have reached nearly 30%, even though the company was experiencing a very rapid increase in orders. Border closures also caused a shortage of seasonal workers, especially in the agricultural sector. Four articles also mentioned voluntary employee departures. Lastly, three articles mentioned the saturation of online communication networks and its negative consequences, including the speed of data transmission.
4.3. Organizational Practices for Managing the COVID-19 Crisis
The diversity of organizational practices put in place to manage the pandemic shows the global and multifaceted nature of this crisis, which affects all organizational activities. Overall, 86% of the articles studied (211 out of 246) mentioned at least one organizational practice put in place to manage the COVID-19 pandemic. The most frequently mentioned measures can be grouped into five main themes (see
Table 4): HRM, organizations’ social and environmental responsibility, the reorganization of operations, the management of health aspects, and specific crisis management measures. These themes are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary and interlinked.
HRM measures were mentioned in 105 articles and encompassed a wide variety of initiatives. The most frequently cited measures concerned compensation—in particular salary maintenance for employees temporarily laid off—or, in contrast, salary reduction to cope with the crisis and avoid or limit layoffs. For example, Emirates announced a 25% to 50% salary reduction for most of its employees for a three-month period. This type of measure has been announced by many airlines, but these companies have also carried out massive layoffs. Some companies have also announced special bonuses for employees who were most exposed or had extra expenses during the shutdown. This is the case with Facebook, which has implemented a $1000 bonus for its regular employees to compensate for the additional expenses associated with shutdown and working from home. Various measures to assist laid-off employees have also been put in place. For example, the recruitment campaigns of some companies, such as Amazon, targeted employees of other companies who lost their jobs during the pandemic. This helps to meet a temporary need for labor with employees who are expected to return to their jobs after the crisis. Similarly, some companies, such as Uber, directly contacted companies that had announced hiring during the pandemic and set up various services to support laid-off employees, including the creation of a special application (Work Hub) to group together job offers in certain regions. Conversion of these employees to other growing businesses, such as Uber Eats, has also been encouraged. The importance of communication and support for employees during the crisis was also stressed in many articles covering HRM issues. For example, the insurance group Macif has put in place various measures in this area, including an employee assistance and psychological support unit and a special internal phone number to answer questions about the pandemic. Lastly, companies have also developed ad hoc training programs to prepare for work during the pandemic or to better manage it, particularly in high-risk activities. This is the case, for example, of the ORPEA Group, which manages many retirement homes internationally and has implemented this type of program for its establishments’ staff in collaboration with doctors and nurses.
Practices related to organizations’ social and environmental responsibility were addressed in 85 articles. First, many companies have set up support schemes for collateral victims of the pandemic or for organizations involved in the fight against COVID-19. In most of the examples listed, the donations made were related to the company’s main activity. For example, Danone North America and Vita Coco have donated more than $1 million to food banks and organizations fighting malnutrition, which are particularly in demand due to the explosion in unemployment. Uber provided 10 million free trips for the elderly and medical staff during the pandemic. Similarly, Subway offered two million meals to Food Banks Canada, and the French railway company SNCF offered free train travel for medical and paramedical staff. Also, 23 articles mentioned the importance of better integrating the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and of refocusing company values to demonstrate greater corporate citizenship or a better balance between the interests of shareholders and stakeholders. Several articles also pointed out that the companies most committed to sustainable development were better prepared than others to manage the pandemic. This is the case, for example, of Patagonia, which long ago refocused its mission on social and environmental responsibility. According to its leaders, the company’s B Corp certification implies considering the interests of stakeholders (in particular the community, workers, and the environment) on an equal footing with those of shareholders. However, this type of striking example was quite rare in the articles studied, and in most cases the rebalancing in favor of stakeholder interests was limited to a reduction or modification of the company’s usual activities, to a greater or lesser degree, to take into account certain pressures related to the pandemic. For example, as a result of pressure from various stakeholders, Netflix and YouTube have committed to reducing the quality of online streaming to avoid saturating communication networks, which have been particularly overburdened due in part to the widespread use of teleworking platforms. Other corporate citizenship initiatives focus on communicating transparent information to stakeholders regarding the company’s actual situation during the pandemic, educating customers and the public about COVID-19, and combating the proliferation of “fake news”. For example, the main organizations involved in social media (e.g., Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Google) have announced various measures to better inform users and fight against false rumors: the removal of hundreds of thousands of instances of erroneous content, the dissemination of educational messages on disease prevention to all users, and donations to government agencies to finance the large-scale communication of scientific information on COVID-19.
Examples of measures related to operations management and work organization were mentioned in 82 articles. Thirty-three articles discussed the conversion of certain activities to meet the “war effort” required during the pandemic. Most of the examples mentioned concerned the production of new essential equipment or products for which there was a severe shortage during the pandemic, such as masks, hand sanitizer, respirators, and other health-related equipment (gloves, beds, screening tests). For example, LVMH converted part of its factories to produce hand sanitizer; Apple designed and produced millions of masks for hospital staff; Ford, PSA, Air Liquide, and Tesla manufactured respirators; and the hockey equipment manufacturer Bauer produced protective visors for healthcare workers. Examples concerning the promotion of teleworking, the strengthening of companies’ digitalization, and the use of videoconferencing and online collaboration software (e.g., Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Tamashare, Skype for Business, etc.) were cited in 38 articles. For instance, Twitter introduced in early March an allocation of $1000 for employees voluntarily working from home. In turn, Essilor guaranteed the same Internet connection via VPN to their employees working on-site and from home. The generalization of teleworking, where possible, has led some companies to consider the longer-term sustainability of this mode of operation. For example, Bank of Montreal executives estimated that nearly 36,000 employees (about 80% of its staff) could continue to work remotely on a regular basis. Work reorganization initiatives for activities that cannot be done remotely were covered in 31 articles. These initiatives varied widely depending on the type of activity: reduction of store opening hours to allow cleaning of public spaces, division of shifts and alternating work in offices to limit the risk of contamination, restriction or elimination of business travel, and more. Reorganization has sometimes led to a radical change in business models. For example, after losing 100% of its customer base, FoodRelay, a Canadian start-up specializing in delivering meals tailored to the needs of individual employees to workplaces, reorganized its operations to make home deliveries to employees who now work from home for the most part. Furthermore, initiatives to adapt logistics and transportation activities were mentioned in 22 articles. The majority of the examples cited relate to diversifying suppliers, promoting local purchasing, and increasing stocks of strategic products to limit the risk of supply chain disruptions. For example, the major French supermarket chains have implemented various measures in collaboration with the country’s main agricultural union (FNSEA) to promote “food patriotism” and sustainable development through a drastic reduction in imported products and the refocusing of food sales on local products.
Surprisingly, practices related to specific health measures were only mentioned in 63 articles. Most of these measures (e.g., social distancing, distribution of protective masks, cleaning of work areas, prohibition of external visitors) reflected the basic guidelines and recommendations of various public health organizations. However, the shortage of equipment and supplies during the shutdown period (masks, disinfectants) and the need to respond to a rapid increase in demand in some sectors have led to innovative practices to deal with the crisis. For example, several articles mention Amazon’s creation of a special team bringing together various skills (procurement specialists, engineers, scientists, computer specialists) to gather medical equipment and quickly set up an internal laboratory to rapidly test the company’s American employees. According to the group’s leaders, this initiative has helped to reassure employees and limit the risk of COVID-19 transmission, particularly by asymptomatic individuals. Similarly, the Essilor group used the WeChat application to rapidly develop a system for tracking at-risk employees in order to locate them, monitor their journeys, and manage the quarantine of some of the staff.
Lastly, specific crisis management measures were mentioned in 60 articles. These measures were mainly aimed at the company’s senior management and essentially concerned three types of decisions: setting up a crisis unit, analyzing the situation and planning a response tailored to the scale of the crisis, and restructuring activities. Nineteen articles discussed setting up a crisis unit bringing together the main leaders, representatives of the company functions most affected by the crisis and external experts. This crisis unit provides a more global view of the situation and gives more legitimacy to the decisions taken. Some companies, such as Standard Industries, have also set up a committee made up of external experts from the business, scientific, medical, and government communities to help the organization make more informed decisions. The planning measures put in place essentially revolve around developing various scenarios for how the situation could evolve, conducting risk analysis, and implementing various crisis management plans designed for each situation. These plans may be global or focus on specific issues, such as organizing voluntary departures, exploiting new opportunities, gathering information on investments, communicating with stakeholders, training front-line staff, or preparing for business resumption. While these measures were frequently mentioned in the articles analyzed, the examples were not very developed and were limited to quoting corporate leaders or mentioning the names of certain companies. However, the examples looking at the restructuring of companies’ activities were more detailed. The majority of these examples stressed the importance of acting quickly to reduce costs and refocus companies’ activities on their core business or, if necessary, to adapt businesses to the new needs resulting from the pandemic. Not surprisingly, SMEs appear to be more flexible in making these rapid and major changes. For example, following measures to reduce or halt restaurant activity, several restaurant owners in the San Francisco area have radically transformed their businesses into neighborhood grocery stores in response to the growing popularity of local trade in basic necessities and the closure of large shopping centers during the pandemic.
4.4. Exemplifying Responsible Leadership and Preventing Unethical Behaviors
The examples mentioned in the articles studied were not limited to good practices. They also covered the discretionary adoption of behaviors or approaches considered responsible or ethical on the part of leaders who tended to be presented as models to be emulated. These were mentioned in 24% of the articles. Conversely, 18% of the articles studied mentioned behaviors that were considered unethical and should be avoided. Attitudes and behaviors considered responsible revolved around four interrelated themes (see
Table 5). One of the most often mentioned virtuous approaches (41 articles) concerned the demonstration of personal behavior considered exemplary on the part of the corporate leader, particularly in terms of their remuneration. Most of the articles in this category mentioned the need for executives to demonstrate solidarity, especially towards those who are most at risk and who are most often paid much less than their superiors. Examples of commitments by executives to forego all or part of their salary were mentioned in this category: reducing the salaries of Sodexo executives in order to finance a
$30 million fund for laid-off employees, reducing the Disney CEO’s salary by 50%, cancelling the salary of the Marriott Hotels CEO and reducing the salary of the company’s top executives by half, cancelling the salary of Boeing’s CEO, limiting the salary of Columbia Sportswear’s CEO to
$10,000, and so on. Another frequently mentioned approach (21 articles) concerned listening to stakeholders, especially employees, and encouraging them to express themselves internally about the crisis. For example, the CEO of the pharmaceutical group Unither stated that he spends most of his days on the phone speaking with various stakeholders about the crisis and its implications. This listening approach is often associated with a benevolent and empathetic attitude on the part of management with regard to the impacts of the pandemic. Some articles mentioned the need to recognize employees’ efforts, to demonstrate that their health is a priority issue for the company, and to return to more essential human values. In addition to its ethical aspects, such an approach appears to be important for retaining and motivating employees in the longer term. The importance of delegating, taking a step back, and not overreacting to the crisis was also mentioned. As the CEO of Accenture sums up: “My job as a leader is not to put more stress into a system that is already stressed” [
85]. Lastly, two articles mentioned the need for long-term focus, emotional maturity, and reassuring of employees by avoiding overly pessimistic or optimistic comments about the pandemic. According to a consultant specializing in leadership skills, “it takes a great deal of consciousness from leaders in the midst of crisis and upheaval to maintain a balance that is neither too negative nor overly optimistic” [
86].
The examples of behaviors that were considered unethical and should be proscribed revolved around three main types of approaches (see
Table 6). The first type of approach, which was criticized in 29 articles, was the inadequacy of measures put in place by some companies to protect the most at-risk employees and customers. Interestingly, several companies, such as Amazon and Uber, which were often cited for their exemplary initiatives, were also often criticized for not doing enough. For example, some Amazon employees said that many people who tested positive for COVID-19 continued to work in the company’s warehouses or in the delivery of goods. Similar accusations have been made against other companies involved in transportation or consumer sales, such as Whole Foods, Walmart, Instacart, and FedEx. Some companies, such as BuzzFeed or Amazon, have stopped all or part of their operations in some warehouses, not because of government-imposed shutdown measures, but because of internal pressure from employees refusing to take health risks for the benefit of the company. The second type of approach, which was criticized in 13 articles, was the opportunism of some companies that have tried to take undue advantage of the crisis. Among other things, the articles cited abusive or even fraudulent behavior aimed at taking advantage of the aid put in place by governments, the controversial role of certain lobbyists during the crisis period to promote activities with high environmental impacts (large-scale production of plastic packaging, relaunch of certain oil projects), the pressure exerted on suppliers weakened by the crisis (late payments, abusive credit rates), or the misleading statements made by certain corporate leaders. For example, the commitment of the CEO of United Airlines to waive his base salary appears misleading as this salary represents less than 10% of his total compensation, which is largely composed of bonuses and stock options. The third type of unethical approach, which was criticized in six articles, concerned companies’ denial of reality in the face of the pandemic and their lack of consideration for their most vulnerable employees during the crisis. For example, statements by Tesla’s CEO about “excessive panic” over the pandemic and his pressure to keep its California plants operating during general shutdown have been criticized. Likewise, the articles denounced the insufficient salary of employees working in Amazon’s warehouses and the company’s threats to suspend the remuneration of French employees who wanted to avail themselves of their “right of withdrawal” (guaranteed by the French labor code) in order not to expose themselves to excessive risks during the pandemic.