Extended Data Fig. 1: Metanalysis across different risk factors for Cognition.

Each panel illustrates the major effects for each factor analyzed: panel a focuses on demographics; panel b on health; panel c on mental health; panel d on lifestyle; and panel e on Social Determinants of Health (SDH). The forest plot shows -k studies using the random effects model (first author, odds ratio, confidence interval, and weights). The random effects model results (Demographics: k = 15, n = 66634, OR = 1.5098, p-value = 0.0023, CI = [1.1905; 1.9147]; Health: k = 16, n = 67736, OR = 1.2856, p-value = 0.0397, CI = [1.0136; 1.6305]; Mental health symptoms: k = 16, n = 38679, OR = 1.6803, p-value = 0.0084, CI = [1.1848; 2.3830]; Lifestyle: k = 13, n = 89457, OR = 1.04, p-value = 0.7747, CI = [0.7765; 1.3930]; SDH: k = 15, n = 68250, OR = 0.9994, p-value = 0.998, CI = [0.6110; 1.6348]) are reported with Knapp-Hartung correction for false discovery rate, the prediction interval, and heterogeneity values (I², tau²). Contour-enhanced funnel plot showing effect sizes, standard errors, and significance. P-curve analysis, showing the accumulation of p-values over the significant studies (observed p-curve), the no-effect curve and 33% power curve. GOSH (Graphic Display of Heterogeneity) shows the distribution for all 2k-1 possible study combinations (1 million randomly selected models when 2k-1 > 106) in blue and leaving out the most negatively influential study in green.