Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2024 May 20;5(5):CD013613.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013613.pub2.

Early pharmacological interventions for prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in individuals experiencing acute traumatic stress symptoms

Federico Bertolini  1 , Lindsay Robertson  2   3 , Jonathan I Bisson  4 , Nicholas Meader  2   3 , Rachel Churchill  2   3 , Giovanni Ostuzzi  1 , Dan J Stein  5 , Taryn Williams  6 , Corrado Barbui  1
Affiliations
Review

Early pharmacological interventions for prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in individuals experiencing acute traumatic stress symptoms

Federico Bertolini et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Acute traumatic stress symptoms may develop in people who have been exposed to a traumatic event. Although they are usually self-limiting in time, some people develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a severe and debilitating condition. Pharmacological interventions have been proposed for acute symptoms to act as an indicated prevention measure for PTSD development. As many individuals will spontaneously remit, these interventions should balance efficacy and tolerability.

Objectives: To assess the efficacy and acceptability of early pharmacological interventions for prevention of PTSD in adults experiencing acute traumatic stress symptoms.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Common Mental Disorders Controlled Trial Register (CCMDCTR), CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase and two other databases. We checked the reference lists of all included studies and relevant systematic reviews. The search was last updated on 23 January 2023.

Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials on adults exposed to any kind of traumatic event and presenting acute traumatic stress symptoms, without restriction on their severity. We considered comparisons of any medication with placebo, or with another medication. We excluded trials that investigated medications as an augmentation to psychotherapy.

Data collection and analysis: We used standard Cochrane methodological procedures. Using a random-effects model, we analysed dichotomous data as risk ratios (RR) and calculated the number needed to treat for an additional beneficial/harmful outcome (NNTB/NNTH). We analysed continuous data as mean differences (MD) or standardised mean differences (SMD). Our primary outcomes were PTSD severity and dropouts due to adverse events. Secondary outcomes included PTSD rate, functional disability and quality of life.

Main results: We included eight studies that considered four interventions (escitalopram, hydrocortisone, intranasal oxytocin, temazepam) and involved a total of 779 participants. The largest trial contributed 353 participants and the next largest, 120 and 118 participants respectively. The trials enrolled participants admitted to trauma centres or emergency departments. The risk of bias in the included studies was generally low except for attrition rate, which we rated as high-risk. We could meta-analyse data for two comparisons: escitalopram versus placebo (but limited to secondary outcomes) and hydrocortisone versus placebo. One study compared escitalopram to placebo at our primary time point of three months after the traumatic event. There was inconclusive evidence of any difference in terms of PTSD severity (mean difference (MD) on the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS, score range 0 to 136) -11.35, 95% confidence interval (CI) -24.56 to 1.86; 1 study, 23 participants; very low-certainty evidence), dropouts due to adverse events (no participant left the study early due to adverse events; 1 study, 31 participants; very low-certainty evidence) and PTSD rates (RR 0.59, 95% CI 0.03 to 13.08; NNTB 37, 95% CI NNTB 15 to NNTH 1; 1 study, 23 participants; very low-certainty evidence). The study did not assess functional disability or quality of life. Three studies compared hydrocortisone to placebo at our primary time point of three months after the traumatic event. We found inconclusive evidence on whether hydrocortisone was more effective in reducing the severity of PTSD symptoms compared to placebo (MD on CAPS -7.53, 95% CI -25.20 to 10.13; I2 = 85%; 3 studies, 136 participants; very low-certainty evidence) and whether it reduced the risk of developing PTSD (RR 0.47, 95% CI 0.09 to 2.38; NNTB 14, 95% CI NNTB 8 to NNTH 5; I2 = 36%; 3 studies, 136 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Evidence on the risk of dropping out due to adverse events is inconclusive (RR 3.19, 95% CI 0.13 to 75.43; 2 studies, 182 participants; low-certainty evidence) and it is unclear whether hydrocortisone might improve quality of life (MD on the SF-36 (score range 0 to 136, higher is better) 19.70, 95% CI -1.10 to 40.50; 1 study, 43 participants; very low-certainty evidence). No study assessed functional disability.

Authors' conclusions: This review provides uncertain evidence regarding the use of escitalopram, hydrocortisone, intranasal oxytocin and temazepam for people with acute stress symptoms. It is therefore unclear whether these pharmacological interventions exert a positive or negative effect in this population. It is important to note that acute traumatic stress symptoms are often limited in time, and that the lack of data prevents the careful assessment of expected benefits against side effects that is therefore required. To yield stronger conclusions regarding both positive and negative outcomes, larger sample sizes are required. A common operational framework of criteria for inclusion and baseline assessment might help in better understanding who, if anyone, benefits from an intervention. As symptom severity alone does not provide the full picture of the impact of exposure to trauma, assessment of quality of life and functional impairment would provide a more comprehensive picture of the effects of the interventions. The assessment and reporting of side effects may facilitate a more comprehensive understanding of tolerability.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00855270 NCT00146900 NCT00300313 NCT00158262 NCT01099501 NCT03166501 NCT00671099 NCT00114374 NCT00674570 NCT02069366 NCT02505984 NCT03724448 NCT04467086 NCT02090309 NCT00182078 NCT02866071 NCT01039766 NCT03997864 NCT04071600 NCT04274361 NCT04924166.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

FB: no conflicts of interest

LR: no conflicts of interest

JIB: has been involved in the development of a guided self‐help programme for post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which has been tested in a Phase II randomised controlled trial (RCT) in partnership with the Healthcare Learning Company. JIB is leading an application for grant funding for a Phase III RCT of the programme. Cardiff University and JIB stand to benefit from royalties if the product is commercialised.

RC: leads and has responsibility for Cochrane Common Mental Disorders, which has supported parts of the review process and is largely funded by a grant from the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) in the UK.

NM: no conflicts of interest

GO: no conflicts of interest

DS: has received research grants and/or consultancy honoraria from AMBRF, Biocodex, Cipla, Lundbeck, National Responsible Gambling Foundation, Novartis, Servier and Sun.

TA: no conflicts of interest

CB: no conflicts of interest

LR, NM, CB are Cochrane editors. None of them were involved in the editorial process for this review.

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD013613

References

References to studies included in this review

Carmi 2022 {published data only}
    1. Carmi L, Zohar J, Weissman T, Juven-Wetzler A, Bierer L, Yehuda R, et al. Hydrocortisone in the emergency department: a prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled posttraumatic stress disorder study. Hydrocortisone during golden hours. CNS Spectrums 2022;9:1-7. [DOI: 10.1017/S1092852922000852] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Delahanty 2013 {published data only}
    1. Delahanty DL, Gabert-Quillen C, Ostrowski SA, Nugent NR, Fischer B, Morris A, et al. The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: a randomized trial. CNS Spectrums 2013;18(2):103-11. [DOI: 10.1017/S1092852913000096)] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Delahanty DL, Ostrowski S, Nugent N, Gabert C, Fallon W. Hydrocortisone as a secondary intervention to prevent subsequent PTSD symptoms [conference abstract]. Psychosomatic Medicine [abstracts from the 69th Annual Meeting of the American Psychosomatic Society; 2011 Mar 9-12; San Antonio, TX United States] 2011;73(3):A107.
Mellman 2002 {published data only}
    1. Mellman TA, Bustamante V, David D, Fins AI. Hypnotic medication in the aftermath of trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2002;63(12):1183-4. [DOI: 10.4088/jcp.v63n1214h] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Shalev 2012 {published data only}
    1. Galatzer-Levy IR, Ankri Y, Freedman S, Israeli-Shalev Y, Roitman P, Gilad M, et al. Early PTSD symptom trajectories: persistence, recovery, and response to treatment: results from the Jerusalem Trauma Outreach and Prevention Study (J-TOPS). PLOS One 2013;8(8):e70084. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070084] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Shalev A Y, Ankri Y L, Peleg T, Israeli-Shalev Y, Freedman S. Barriers to receiving early care for PTSD: results from the Jerusalem trauma outreach and prevention study. Psychiatric Services 2011;62(7):765-73. [DOI: 10.1176/ps.62.7.pss6207_0765] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Shalev A Y, Ankri Y, Gilad M, Israeli-Shalev Y, Adessky R, Qian M, et al. Long-term outcome of early interventions to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2016;77(5):e580-7. [DOI: 10.4088/JCP.15m09932] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Shalev AY, Ankri Y, Gilad M, Israeli- Shalev Y, Qian M, Galatzer-Levy I, et al. The differential effect of early and efficient interventions for acute PTSD declines with time [abstract]. In: Neuropsychopharmacology. A.Y. Shalev, New York University, New York, NY, United States, 2013:S365-6.
    1. Shalev AY, Ankri Y, Israeli-Shalev Y, Peleg T, Adessky R, Freedman S. Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder by early treatment: results from the Jerusalem Trauma Outreach And Prevention study. Archives of General Psychiatry 2012;69(2):166-76. [DOI: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.127] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Suliman 2015 {published data only}
    1. Suliman S, Seedat S, Pingo J, Sutherland T, Zohar J, Stein DJ. Escitalopram in the prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2015;15:24. [DOI: 10.1186/s12888-015-0391-3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Van Zuiden 2017 {published data only}
    1. Engel S, Zuiden M, Frijling JL, Koch SBJ, Nawijn L, Schumacher S, et al. Patterns of recovery from early posttraumatic stress symptoms after a preventive intervention with oxytocin: hormonal contraception use is a prognostic factor. [References]. Biological Psychiatry 2019;85(12):e71-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.01.014] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Engel S, Zuiden M, Frijling JL, Koch SBJ, Nawijn L, Yildiz RLW, et al. Early posttraumatic autonomic and endocrine markers to predict posttraumatic stress symptoms after a preventive intervention with oxytocin. European Journal of Psychotraumatology 2020;11(1):1761622. [DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2020.1761622] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Frijling J, Van Zuiden M, Koch SBJ, Nawijn L, Veltman DJ, Olff M. Intranasal oxytocin attenuates amygdala functional connectivity after a trauma reminder in recently trauma-exposed individuals. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2015;25(Suppl 2):S560. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Frijling J, Van Zuiden M, Nawijn L, Koch S B J, Veltman D J, Olff M. Repeated intranasal oxytocin administration as early preventive intervention for PTSD: a randomized controlled trial. In: European Neuropsychopharmacology. Vol. 26. 2016:S129-30.
    1. Frijling J, Zuiden M, Koch S, Nawijn L, Veltman D, Olff M. Effects of intranasal oxytocin on amygdala reactivity to emotional faces in recently trauma-exposed individuals. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2016;11(2):327-36. [DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsv116] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Zohar 2011 {published data only}
    1. Zohar J, Yahalom H, Kozlovsky N, Cwikel-Hamzany S, Matar MA, Kaplan Z, et al. High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: interplay between clinical and animal studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;21(11):796-809. - PubMed
    1. Zohar J. High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of posttraumatic stress disorder: Translational interplay between clinical and animal studies [abstract]. Neuropsychopharmacology [abstracts of the 50th Annual Meeting of the American college of Neuropsychopharmacology, ACNP; 4-8 Dec 2011, Waikoloa, HI United States] 2011;36:S24. - PubMed
    1. Zohar J. Hydrocortisone in the golden hours and PTSD trajectory-clinical and animal studies. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2012;15(Suppl 1):18.
    1. Zohar J. Long-term effects of high-dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma: a double blind, placebo-controlled prospective study. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017;43:S89-90.
    1. Zohar J. New insights into secondary prevention in PTSD. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2014;17(Suppl 1):20. [DOI: 10.1017/S1461145714000741] - DOI
Zohar 2018 {published data only}
    1. Zohar J, Fostick L, Juven-Wetzler A, Kaplan Z, Shalev H, Schreiber G, et al. Secondary prevention of chronic PTSD by early and short-term administration of escitalopram: a prospective randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2018;79(2):48-54. [DOI: 10.4088/JCP.16m10730] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Zohar J. Golden hours in psychiatric disorders: focus on PTSD [abstract]. Indian Journal of Psychiatry [Abstracts of the 64th Annual National Conference of the Indian Psychiatric Society, ANCIPS; 2012 Jan 19-22; Kochi, India] 2012;54:S30-1.

References to studies excluded from this review

Bailly 2021 {published data only}
    1. Bailly P, Egreteau PY, Ehrmann S, Thille AW, Guitton C, Grillet G, et al. Inased (inhaled sedation in ICU) trial protocol: a multicentre randomised open-label trial. BMJ Open 2021;11:e042284. [DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042284] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Bartoszek 2023 {published data only}
    1. Bartoszek M, McGuire JM, Wilson JT, Sorensen JS, Vice TFR, Hudson AJ. The effectiveness of dexmedetomidine as a prophylactic treatment for emergence delirium among combat veterans with high anxiety: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Military Medicine 2023;188(1):e286-94. [DOI: 10.1093/milmed/usab212] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Beaudoin 2022 {published data only}
    1. Beaudoin FL, Gaither R, DeLomba WC, McLean SA. Tolerability and efficacy of duloxetine for the prevention of persistent musculoskeletal pain after trauma and injury: a pilot three-group randomized controlled trial. Pain 2022;15:855-63. [DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002782] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Blaha 1999 {published data only}
    1. Blaha J, Svobodova K, Kapounkova Z. Therapeutical aspects of using citalopram in burns. Acta Chirurgiae Plasticae 1999;41(1):25-32. - PubMed
Borrelli 2019 {published data only}
    1. Borrelli J Jr, Starr A, Downs DL, North CS. Prospective study of the effectiveness of paroxetine on the onset of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and health and functional outcomes after trauma. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma 2019;33(2):e58-63. [1531-2291: (Electronic)] - PubMed
Denke 2008 {published data only}
    1. Denke C, Deja M, Carstens S, Sprung CL, Annane D, Briegel J, et al. Effects of hydrocortisone on posttraumatic stress disorder after septic shock: results from the CORTICUS Berlin Study Group. Critical Care 2008;12(2):P421. [DOI: 10.1186/cc6642] - DOI
    1. Sprung C L, Annane D, Keh D, Moreno R, Singer M, Freivogel K, et al. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. New England Journal of Medicine 2008;358(2):111-24. [DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa071366] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
EUCTR‐004177‐83‐NL {unpublished data only}
    1. EUCTR-004177-83-NL. Oxytocine en social support after a traumatic event. https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2011-004177-83/NL 2011.
EUCTR2019‐004537‐16‐FR {published data only}
    1. EUCTR2019-004537-16-FR. Comparison of an inhaled sedation strategy to an intravenous sedation strategy in ICU patients treated with invasive mechanical ventilation. https://trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=EUCTR2019-004537-16-FR 2020.
FDA 1999 {published data only}
    1. FDA. Review and evaluation of clinical data. Drugs@fda [www.accessdata.fda.gov] | http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/99/19-839S026_Zoloft_C... 1999.
Frankova 2017 {published data only}
    1. Frankova I. Will early intervention with SSRI versus benzodiazepines reduce the risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder? In: European Neuropsychopharmacology. Vol. 27. 2017:S998-9.
Gelpin 1996 {published data only}
    1. Gelpin E, Bonne O, Peri T, Brandes D, Shalev AY. Treatment of recent trauma survivors with benzodiazepines: a prospective study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1996;57(9):390-4. - PubMed
Haywood 2021 {published data only}
    1. Haywood K L, Ji C, Quinn T, Nolan JP, Deakin CD, Scomparin C, et al. Long term outcomes of participants in the PARAMEDIC2 randomised trial of adrenaline in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 2021;160:84-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.resuscitation.2021.01.019] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Hicks 2009 {published data only}
    1. Hicks P B, Adams M L, Litz B, Young K, Goldart J, Velez T, et al. Predictors of treatment response to fluoxetine in PTSD following a recent history of war zone stress exposure. In: CCMDCTR. 2009.
Hoge 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hoge EA, Worthington JJ, Nagurney JT, Chang Y, Kay EB, Feterowski CM, et al. Effect of acute posttrauma propranolol on PTSD outcome and physiological responses during script-driven imagery. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics 2012;18(1):21-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00227.x] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
IRCT20190919044819N2 {published data only}20190919044819N
    1. IRCT20190919044819N2. The effect of propranolol on post-traumatic stress and clinical outcomes in burn patients. https://trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=IRCT20190919044819N2 2020.
Kagan 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kagan I, Ben David I, Cohen J, Baniel I, Silva V, Grinev M, et al. SUN-PP054: Long term effects of EPA, GLA and antioxidant administration on post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following multiple trauma; a prospective randomized double blind study. Clinical Nutrition 2015;34(Suppl 1):S43. [DOI: 10.1016/S0261-5614(15)30205-3] - DOI
    1. Kagan I, Cohen J, Stein M, Bendavid I, Pinsker D, Silva V, et al. Preemptive enteral nutrition enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and antioxidants in severe multiple trauma: a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Intensive Care Medicine 2015;41(3):460-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00134-015-3646-z] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Kaplan 2015 {published data only}
    1. Kaplan BJ, Rucklidge JJ, Romijn AR, Dolph M. A randomised trial of nutrient supplements to minimise psychological stress after a natural disaster. Psychiatry Research 2015;228(3):373-9. - PubMed
Kok 2016 {published data only}
    1. Dieleman JM, Nierich AP, Rosseel PM, Maaten JM, Hofland J, Diephuis JC, et al. Intraoperative high-dose dexamethasone for cardiac surgery: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2012;308(17):1761-7. [DOI: 10.1001/jama.2012.14144] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Kok L, Hillegers M, Veldhuijzen D, Joels M, Van Dijk D. Individual susceptibility to stress-related psychopathology after cardiac surgery. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015;61:24.
    1. Kok L, Hillegers MH, Veldhuijzen DS, Boks MP, Dieleman JM, Dijk D, et al. Genetic variation in the glucocorticoid receptor and psychopathology after dexamethasone administration in cardiac surgery patients. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2018;103:167-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.05.015] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Kok L, Hillegers MH, Veldhuijzen DS, Cornelisse S, Nierich AP, Maaten JM, et al. The effect of dexamethasone on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after cardiac surgery and intensive care admission: longitudinal follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Critical Care Medicine 2016;44(3):512-20. [DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000001419] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Kok L, Hillegers MHJ, Veldhuijzen DS, Cornelisse S, Sep MSC, Peelen LM, et al. The effect of dexamethasone on symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression after cardiac surgery. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2015;44(3):S74-5. [DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000001419] - DOI
Lijffijt 2019 {published data only}
    1. Lijffijt M, Green CE, Balderston N, Iqbal T, Atkinson M, Vo-Le B, et al. A proof-of-mechanism study to test effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist lanicemine on behavioral sensitization in individuals with symptoms of PTSD. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2019;10:846. [DOI: ] [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Lossada‐Soto 2022 {published data only}
    1. Lossada-Soto E, Pazik M, Horodyski M B, Vasilopoulos T, Faria LB, Mathews C, et al. Can fluoxetine mitigate mental health decline in musculoskeletal trauma patients: a pilot single-center randomized clinical trial. Pilot & Feasibility Studies 2022;8(1):184. [DOI: 10.1186/s40814-022-01119-8] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Matsumura 2011 {published data only}
    1. Matsumura K, Noguchi H, Nishi D, Matsuoka Y. The effect of omega-3 fatty acids on psychophysiological assessment for the secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder: an open-label pilot study. Global Journal of Health Science 2012;4(1):3-9. - PMC - PubMed
Matsuoka 2010 {published data only}
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Yonemoto N, Hamazaki K, Hamazaki T, Hashimoto K. Potential role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in omega-3 fatty acid supplementation to prevent posttraumatic distress after accidental injury: An open-label pilot study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2011;80(5):310-2. - PubMed
Matsuoka 2015 {published data only}
    1. Matsumura K, Noguchi H, Nishi D, Hamazaki K, Hamazaki T, Matsuoka YJ. Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on psychophysiological symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in accident survivors: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders 2017;224:27-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.054] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Hamazaki K, Yonemoto N, Matsumura K, Noguchi H, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid for selective prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder among severely injured patients: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2015;76(8):e1015-22. [DOI: 10.4088/JCP.14m09260] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Tanima Y, Itakura M, Kojima M, Hamazaki K, et al. Serum BDNF as a treatment biomarker for response to docosahexaenoic acid in traumatized people vulnerable to developing psychological distress: a randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2015;84(Suppl 1):47. [DOI: 10.1159/000438780] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Tanima Y, Itakura M, Kojima M, Hamazaki K, et al. Serum pro-BDNF/BDNF as a treatment biomarker for response to docosahexaenoic acid in traumatized people vulnerable to developing psychological distress: A randomized controlled trial. Translational Psychiatry 2015;5:e596. [DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.89] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Yonemoto N, Hamazaki K, Matsumura K, Noguchi H, et al. Tachikawa project for prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with polyunsaturated fatty acid (TPOP): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2013;13:8. [DOI: 10.1186/1471-244X-13-8] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
McMullan 2021 {published data only}
    1. McMullan J, Droege C, Strilka R, Hart K, Lindsell C. Intranasal ketamine as an adjunct to fentanyl for the prehospital treatment of acute traumatic pain: design and rationale of a randomized controlled trial. Prehospital Emergency Care 2021;25(4):519-29. [DOI: 10.1080/10903127.2020.1808746] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Mistraletti 2015 {published data only}
    1. Mistraletti G, Umbrello M, Sabbatini G, Miori S, Taverna M, Cerri B, et al. Melatonin reduces the need for sedation in ICU patients: a randomized controlled trial. Minerva Anestesiologica 2015;81(12):1298-310. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Naylor 2013 {published data only}
    1. Naylor JC, Dolber TR, Strauss JL, Kilts JD, Strauman TJ, Bradford DW, et al. A pilot randomized controlled trial with paroxetine for subthreshold PTSD in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom era veterans. Psychiatry Research 2013;206(2-3):318-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.11.008] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
NCT00114374 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT00114374. SSRI administration to reduce acute stress disorder symptoms and prevent depression and PTSD in physical trauma victims. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00114374 2005.
NCT00674570 {published data only}
    1. Inslicht SS. Effects of hydrocortisone and D-cycloserine on fear extinction in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/nct00674570 2008.
NCT02069366 {published data only}
    1. Rabinak CA. Cannabinoid control of fear extinction neural circuits in post-traumatic stress disorder. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02069366 2014. [clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02069366]
NCT02505984 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT02505984. Preventing postpartum depression with intranasal oxytocin (IN-OXT). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02505984 2015.
NCT03724448 {unpublished data only}
    1. Boukef R, Youssef R, Yaakoubi H, Trabelsi I, Sekma A, Ali KBH, Salah HB, Baccari A, Boukadida L, Zorgati A. Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of an early treatment with herbal supplement based in the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder in emergency department (PHYTeS Study). medRxiv 2022;13.
    1. NCT03724448. The efficacy of a herbal supplement in the prevention of PTSD (PHYTéS). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03724448.
NCT04467086 {published data only}
    1. NCT04467086. Propranolol as an anxiolytic to reduce the use of sedatives from critically-ill adults receiving mechanical ventilation. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04467086 2020.
Nedergaard 2020 {published data only}
    1. Nedergaard HK, Jensen HI, Stylsvig M, Olsen HT, Strom T, Toft P. Effect of non-sedation on post-traumatic stress and psychological health in survivors of critical illness-a substudy of the NONSEDA randomized trial. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2020;64(8):1136-43. [DOI: 10.1111/aas.13648] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Nishi 2012 {published data only}
    1. JPRN-UMIN000005367. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for secondary prevention of critical incident stress after Japan earthquake March 11 in disaster medical assistance team (DMAT) workers: a randomized controlled trial. https://rctportal.niph.go.jp/en/detail?trial_id=UMIN000005367 2011.
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Koido Y I, Nakaya N, Sone T, Noguchi H, et al. Fish oil for attenuating posttraumatic stress symptoms among rescue workers after the great east japan earthquake: a randomized controlled trial. Psychosomatic Medicine 2013;75(3):A-131. - PubMed
    1. Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Nakaya N, Sone T, Hamazaki K, Hamazaki T, et al. Attenuating posttraumatic distress with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids among disaster medical assistance team members after the Great East Japan Earthquake: the APOP randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry 2011;11:132. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Nishi D, Koido Y, Nakaya N, Sone T, Noguchi H, Hamazaki K, et al. Fish oil for attenuating posttraumatic stress symptoms among rescue workers after the great east Japan earthquake: a randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2012;81(5):315-7. - PubMed
    1. Nishi D, Matsuoka Y. Omega-3 fatty acids for attenuating posttraumatic stress symptoms after the earthquake: a randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2013;82(Suppl 1):75. - PubMed
Orrey 2015 {published data only}
    1. Orrey D, Bortsov A, Liberzon I, Shupp J W, Jones S, Hwang J, et al. Failure of propranolol to decrease anxiety and PTSD symptoms in a genotype-based RCT of patients with major thermal burn injury [abstract]. In: Biological Psychiatry [Abstracts of the 67th Annual Scientific Convention and Meeting of the Society of Biological Psychiatry; 2012 May 3-5; Philadelphia, PA United States]. Vol. 71. 2012:56S. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.02.012] - DOI
    1. Orrey D, Bortsov A, Shupp J, Jones S, Hwang J, Jordan M, et al. Individuals with elevated PTSD symptoms experience increased itch symptom morbidity after major burn injury [abstract]. Biological Psychiatry [Abstracts of the 67th Annual Scientific Convention and Meeting of the Society of Biological Psychiatry; 2012 May 3-5; Philadelphia, PA United States] 2012;71(8):242S. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.02.014] - DOI
    1. Orrey DC, Halawa OI, Bortsov AV, Shupp JW, Jones SW, Haith LR, et al. Results of a pilot multicenter genotype-based randomized placebo-controlled trial of propranolol to reduce pain after major thermal burn injury. Clinical Journal of Pain 2015;31(1):21-9. [DOI: 10.1097/Ajp.0000000000000086] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Pitman 2002 {published data only}
    1. Pitman RK, Sanders KM, Zusman RM, Healy AR, Cheema F, Lasko NB, et al. Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biological Psychiatry 2002;51(2):189-92. - PubMed
Rabinak 2020 {published data only}
    1. Rabinak CA, Blanchette A, Zabik NL, Peters C, Marusak HA, Iadipaolo A, et al. Cannabinoid modulation of corticolimbic activation to threat in trauma-exposed adults: a preliminary study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020;237(6):1813-26. [DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05499-8] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Rucklidge 2012 {published data only}
    1. Rucklidge JJ, Andridge R, Gorman B, Blampied N, Gordon H, Boggis A. Shaken but unstirred? Effects of micronutrients on stress and trauma after an earthquake: RCT evidence comparing formulas and doses. Human Psychopharmacology 2012;27(5):440-54. [DOI: 10.1002/hup.2246] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Rucklidge JJ, Blampied N, Gorman B, Gordon HA, Sole E. Psychological functioning 1 year after a brief intervention using micronutrients to treat stress and anxiety related to the 2011 Christchurch earthquakes: a naturalistic follow-up. Human Psychopharmacology 2014;29(3):230-43. [DOI: 10.1002/hup.2392] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Schelling 2001 {published data only}
    1. Schelling G, Briegel J, Roozendaal B, Stoll C, Rothenhausler HB, Kapfhammer HP. The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biological Psychiatry 2001;50(12):978-85. [DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01270-7] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
    1. Schelling G, Stoll C, Wichmann A, Haller M, Schuffel W, Briegel J. The effect of hydrocortisone (HC) during septic shock on incidence and intensity of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in long term survivors. Critical Care Medicine 1998;26:131A.
Schelling 2004 {published data only}
    1. Schelling G, Kilger E, Roozendaal B, Quervain DJ, Briegel J, Dagge A, et al. Stress doses of hydrocortisone, traumatic memories, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. Biological Psychiatry 2004;55(6):627-33. [PMID: ] - PubMed
    1. Schelling G, Roozendaal B, De Quervain DJ. Can posttraumatic stress disorder be prevented with glucocorticoids? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2004;1032:158-66. - PubMed
    1. Schelling G, Roozendaal B, Krauseneck T, Schmoelz M, DE Quervain D, Briegel J. Efficacy of hydrocortisone in preventing posttraumatic stress disorder following critical illness and major surgery. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2006;1071:46-53. - PubMed
Shaked 2019 {published data only}
    1. Shaked G, Shaked D, Sebbag G, Czeiger D. The effect of steroid treatment on whiplash associated syndrome: a controlled randomized prospective trial. European Journal of Trauma and Emergency Surgery 2019;6:1115-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00068-019-01282-3] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Stein 2007 {published data only}
    1. Stein M B, Kerridge C, Dimsdale JE, Hoyt DB. Pharmacotherapy to prevent PTSD: results from a randomized controlled proof-of-concept trial in physically injured patients. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2007;20(6):923-32. [DOI: 10.1002/jts.20270] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Stoddard 2011 {published data only}
    1. Stoddard Jr, Fj, Luthra R, Sorrentino EA, Saxe GN, Drake J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of sertraline to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder in burned children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 2011;21(5):469-77. - PubMed
Takehiro 2014 {published data only}
    1. Takehiro N, Shen G, Shin T, Satomi T, Yasutake M, Soichiro K, et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder using the traditional Japanese herbal medicine Saikokeishikankyoto: a randomized, observer-blinded, controlled trial in survivors of the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2014;2014:683293. [DOI: 10.1155/2014/683293] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Tincu 2016 {published data only}
    1. Tincu R, Cobilinschi C, Tomescu D, Ghiorghiu Z, Macovei R. Can 5-hydroxytriptophan prevent post-traumatic stress disorder in critically ill patients? Critical Care. Conference: 36th International Symposium on Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Brussels Belgium. 2016;20:119.
Treggiari 2009 {published data only}
    1. Treggiari MM, Rom, AJ, Yanez ND, Deem SA, Goldberg J, et al. Randomized trial of light versus deep sedation on mental health after critical illness. Critical Care Medicine 2009;37(9):2527-34. - PubMed
Truppman Lattie 2020 {published data only}
    1. Truppman Lattie D, Nehoff H, Neehoff S, Gray A, Glue P. Anxiolytic effects of acute and maintenance ketamine, as assessed by the Fear Questionnaire subscales and the Spielberger State Anxiety Rating Scale. Journal of Psychopharmacology 2020 Sep 9 [Epub ahead of print]:137-41. [DOI: 10.1177/0269881120953991] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Weis 2006 {published data only}
    1. Weis F, Kilger E, Roozendaal B, Quervain DJ, Lamm P, Schmidt M, et al. Stress doses of hydrocortisone reduce chronic stress symptoms and improve health-related quality of life in high-risk patients after cardiac surgery: a randomized study. Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 2006;131(2):277-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2005.07.063] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Yang 2011 {published data only}
    1. Yang H T, Xiong Y, Zhou F. Immunoprotection of dexmedetomidine from acute psychological stress. Journal of Dalian Medical University 2011;33(5):479-82.
Zhong 2022 {published data only}
    1. ChiCTR2100050202. Effect of general anesthetics on post-traumatic stress disorder after emergency surgery in trauma patients. https://trialsearch.who.int/Trial2.aspx?TrialID=ChiCTR2100050202 2021.
    1. Zhong J, Li Y, Fang L, Han D, Gong C, Hu S, et al. Effects of sevoflurane and propofol on posttraumatic stress disorder after emergency trauma: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychiatry Frontiers Research Foundation 2022;13:853795. [DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.853795] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Zoellner 2001 {published data only}
    1. Zoellner LA, Foa EB, Feeny NC, Meadows EA, Hembree EA. Prevention of chronic PTSD in recent asault victims. In: 17th Annual Meeting, International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, December 6-9, New Orleans, LA. 2001.

References to ongoing studies

EUCTR‐000088‐12‐DE {unpublished data only}
    1. EUCTR-000088-12-DE. A prospective, single-blinded (rater-blinded), randomized, parallel group study of the efficacy of quetiapine XR in the treatment of patients with acute stress disorder (DSM-VI 308.3) - QSR-ASD. https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2007-000088-12/DE 2009.
McMullan 2020 {published data only}
    1. McMullan J, Droege C, Strilka R, Hart K, Lindsell C. Intranasal ketamine as an adjunct to fentanyl for the prehospital treatment of acute traumatic pain: design and rationale of a randomized controlled trial. Prehospital Emergency Care 2020:1-11. [DOI: 10.1080/10903127.2020.1808746] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
NCT01039766 {published data only}
    1. NCT01039766. The efficacy of a single dose of intranasal oxytocin in the prevention of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01039766 2009.
NCT03997864 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT03997864. Administration of prazosin to prevent PTSD in adult women after sexual assault. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT03997864 2019.
NCT04071600 {unpublished data only}
    1. NCT04071600. Intranasal neuropeptide Y in clinical trial in level two trauma patients for PTSD and acute stress disorder. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04071600.
NCT04274361 {published data only}
    1. NCT04274361. Ketamine in severe traumatic injury. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04274361 2020.
NCT04924166 {published data only}
    1. NCT04924166. PTSD prevention using oral hydrocortisone. https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT04924166 2021.

Additional references

Amos 2014
    1. Amos T, Stein DJ, Ipser JC. Pharmacological interventions for preventing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2014, Issue 7. Art. No: CD006239. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006239.pub2] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
APA 2000
    1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition, text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
APA 2013
    1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2013.
Astill Wright 2019
    1. Astill Wright L, Sijbrandij M, Sinnerton R, Lewis C, Roberts NP, Bisson JI. Pharmacological prevention and early treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Translational Psychiatry 2019;9(1):334. [DOI: 10.1038/s41398-019-0673-5] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Barbee 1993
    1. Barbee JG. Memory, benzodiazepines, and anxiety: integration of theoretical and clinical perspectives. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1993;54 Suppl:86-97; discussion 98-101. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Beck 1961
    1. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 1961;4:561-71. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Beck 1988
    1. Beck AT, Epstein N, Brown G, Steer RA. An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1988;56(6):893-7. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Bertolini 2022
    1. Bertolini F, Robertson L, Bisson JL, Meader N, Churchill R, Ostuzzi G, et al. Early pharmacological interventions for universal prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2022, Issue 2. Art. No: CD013443. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD013443.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Besnard 2012
    1. Besnard A, Caboche J, Laroche S. Reconsolidation of memory: a decade of debate. Progress in Neurobiology 2012;99(1):61-80. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Bisson 2021
    1. Bisson JI, Wright LA, Jones KA, Lewis C, Phelps AJ, Sijbrandij M, et al. Preventing the onset of post traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 2021;86:102004. [DOI: ] [PMID: ] - PubMed
Blake 1995
    1. Blake DD, Weathers FW, Nagy LM, Kaloupek DG, Gusman FD, Charney DS, et al. The development of a Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale. Journal of Traumatic Stress 1995;8(1):75-90. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Bogic 2015
    1. Bogic M, Njoku A, Priebe S. Long-term mental health of war-refugees: a systematic literature review. BMC International Health and Human Rights 2015;15:29. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Boissel 1999
    1. Boissel JP, Cucherat M, Li W, Chatellier G, Gueyffier F, Buyse M, et al. The problem of therapeutic efficacy indices. 3. Comparison of the indices and their use [Apercu sur la problematique des indices d'efficacite therapeutique, 3: comparaison des indices et utilisation. Groupe d'Etude des Indices D'efficacite]. Therapie 1999;54(4):405-11. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Breslau 2012
    1. Breslau N. Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in adults. In: Beck JG, Sloan DM, editors(s). The Oxford Handbook of Traumatic Stress Disorders. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012:84-97.
Bryant 2007
    1. Bryant RA. Early intervention for post-traumatic stress disorder. Early Intervention in Psychiatry 2007;1(1):19-26. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-7893.2007.00006.x] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Bryant 2009
    1. Bryant RA, Creamer M, O'Donnell M, Silove D, McFarlane AC. A study of the protective function of acute morphine administration on subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2009;65(5):438-40. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Bryant 2011
    1. Bryant RA. Acute stress disorder as a predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2011;72(2):233-9. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Cahill 1994
    1. Cahill L, Prins B, Weber M, McGaugh JL. Beta-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature 1994;371(6499):702-4. - PubMed
CINeMA 2007 [Computer program]
    1. CINeMA: Confidence in Network Meta-Analysis. Bern: Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, accessed prior to 17 September 2019.
Cohen 2008
    1. Cohen H, Matar MA, Buskila D, Kaplan Z, Zohar J. Early post-stressor intervention with high-dose corticosterone attenuates posttraumatic stress response in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2008;64(8):708-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.025] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Cohen 2010
    1. Cohen H, Kaplan Z, Kozlovsky N, Gidron Y, Matar M A, Zohar J. Hippocampal microinfusion of oxytocin attenuates the behavioural response to stress by means of dynamic interplay with the glucocorticoid-catecholamine responses. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 2010;22(8):889-904. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2010.02003.x] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Covi 1984
    1. Covi L, Lipman RS. Primary depression or primary anxiety. A possible psychometric approach to a diagnostic dilemma. Clinical Neuropharmacology 1984;7(Suppl 1):S502–3.
de Vries 2009
    1. Vries GJ, Olff M. The lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in the Netherlands. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2009;22(4):259-67. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Deeks 2002
    1. Deeks JJ. Issues in the selection of a summary statistic for meta-analysis of clinical trials with binary outcomes. Statistics in Medicine 2002;21(11):1575-600. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Deeks 2011
    1. Deeks JJ, Higgins JPT, Altman DG (editors). Chapter 9: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/.
Delahanty 2000
    1. Delahanty DL, Raimonde AJ, Spoonster E. Initial posttraumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Biological Psychiatry 2000;48(9):940-7. [DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3223(00)00896-9] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Dias 2010
    1. Dias S, Welton NJ, Marinho VCC, Salanti G, Higgins JPT, Ades AE. Estimation and adjustment of bias in randomized evidence by using mixed treatment comparison meta‐analysis. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (A) 2010;173:613-29. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-985X.2010.00639.x] - DOI
Dias 2013
    1. Dias S, Sutton AJ, Ades AE, Welton NJ. Evidence synthesis for decision making 2: a generalized linear modeling framework for pairwise and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Medical Decision Making 2013;33(5):607-17. [DOI: 10.1177/0272989X12458724] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Dias 2013a
    1. Dias S, Welton NJ, Sutton AJ, Caldwell DM, Lu G, Ades AE. Evidence synthesis for decision making 4: inconsistency in networks of evidence based on randomized controlled trials. Medical Decision Making 2013;33(5):641-56. [DOI: 10.1177/0272989X12455847] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Duru 2008
    1. Duru G, Fantino B. The clinical relevance of changes in the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale using the minimum clinically important difference approach. Current Medical Research and Opinion 2008;24(5):1329-35. [DOI: 10.1185/030079908x291958] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Egger 1997
    1. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 1997;315(7109):629-34. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
EndNote [Computer program]
    1. EndNote. Philadelphia: Clarvariate Analytics, 2019.
Furukawa 2006
    1. Furukawa TA, Barbui C, Cipriani A, Brambilla P, Watanabe N. Imputing missing standard deviations in meta-analyses can provide accurate results. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2006;59(1):7-10. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Galatzer‐Levy 2014
    1. Galatzer-Levy IR, Karstoft KI, Statnikov A, Shalev AY. Quantitative forecasting of PTSD from early trauma responses: a Machine Learning application. Journal of Pscyhiatric Research 2014;59:68-76. - PMC - PubMed
GRADEpro GDT 2015 [Computer program]
    1. GRADEpro GDT. Hamilton (ON): McMaster University (developed by Evidence Prime), accessed prior to 17 September 2019. Available at gradepro.org.
Hamilton 1959
    1. Hamilton M. The assessment of anxiety states by rating. British Journal of Medical Psychology 1959;32(1):50-5. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Hamilton 1960
    1. Hamilton M. A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 1960;23(1):56-62. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/.
Higgins 2011a
    1. Higgins JP, Deeks JJ. Chapter 7: Selecting studies and collecting data. In: Higgins JP, Green S, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/.
Higgins 2011b
    1. Higgins JPT, Altman DG, Sterne JAC (editors). Chapter 8: Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/.
Higgins 2011c
    1. Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Altman DG (editors). Chapter 16: Special topics in statistics. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/Available from handbook-5-1.cochrane.org.
Holbrook 2010
    1. Holbrook TL, Galarneau MR, Dye JL, Quinn K, Dougherty AL. Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. New England Journal of Medicine 2010;362(2):110-7. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Howlett 2016
    1. Howlett JR, Stein MB. Prevention of trauma and stressor-related disorders: a review. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41(1):357-69. - PMC - PubMed
Hruska 2014
    1. Hruska B, Cullen PK, Delahanty DL. Pharmacological modulation of acute trauma memories to prevent PTSD: considerations from a developmental perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2014;112:122-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2014.02.001] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
ISTSS 2018
    1. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Prevention and Treatment Guidelines. International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 2018.
Karam 2014
    1. Karam EG, Friedman MJ, Hill ED, Kessler RC, McLaughlin KA, Petukhova M, et al. Cumulative traumas and risk thresholds: 12-month PTSD in the World Mental Health (WMH) surveys. Depression and Anxiety 2014;31(2):130-42. [DOI: 10.1002/da.22169] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Karstoft 2015
    1. Karstoft KI, Galatzer-Levy IR, Statnikov A, Li Z, Shalev AY. Bridging a translational gap: using machine learning to improve the prediction of PTSD. BMC Psychiatry 2015;15:30. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Kearns 2012
    1. Kearns MC, Ressler KJ, Zatzick D, Rothbaum BO. Early interventions for PTSD: a review. Depression and Anxiety 2012;29(10):833-42. [DOI: 10.1002/da.21997] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Kelmendi 2016
    1. Kelmendi B, Adams TG, Yarnell S, Southwick S, Abdallah CG, Krystal JH. PTSD: from neurobiology to pharmacological treatments. European Journal of Psychotraumatology 2016;7:31858. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Kessler 2014
    1. Kessler R, Rose C, Koenen S, Karam KC, Stang EG, Stein PE et al. How well can post-traumatic stress disorder be predicted from pre-trauma risk factors? An exploratory study in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. World Psychiatry 2014;13(3):265-74. - PMC - PubMed
Koch 2014
    1. Koch SB, Zuiden M, Nawijn L, Frijling JL, Veltman DJ, Olff M. Intranasal oxytocin as strategy for medication-enhanced psychotherapy of PTSD: salience processing and fear inhibition processes. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2014;40:242-56. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Koenen 2017
    1. Koenen KC, Ratanatharathorn A, Ng L, McLaughlin KA, Bromet EJ, Stein DJ, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Mental Health Surveys. Psychological Medicine 2017;47(3):2260–74. [DOI: 10.1017/S0033291717000708] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Lee 2016
    1. Lee DJ, Schnitzlein CW, Wolf JP, Vythilingam M, Rasmusson AM, Hoge CW. Psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: systemic review and meta-analyses to determine first-line treatments. Depression and Anxiety 2016;33(9):792-806. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Leonard 2000
    1. Leonard BE, Richelson E. Synaptic effects of antidepressants. In: Buckley PF, Waddington JL, editors(s). Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders: The New Drug Therapies in Clinical Practice. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000:67–84.
Licznerski  2013
    1. Licznerski P, Duman RS. Remodeling of axo-spinous synapses in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression. Neuroscience 2013;251:33-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.09.057] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Lydiard 2003
    1. Lydiard RB. The role of GABA in anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2003;64(Suppl 3):21-7. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Masson 2013
    1. Masson SC, Tejani AM. Minimum clinically important differences identified for commonly used depression rating scales. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2013;66(7):805-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2013.01.010] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Matsuoka 2011
    1. Matsuoka Y. Clearance of fear memory from the hippocampus through neurogenesis by omega-3 fatty acids: a novel preventive strategy for posttraumatic stress disorder? BioPsychoSocial Medicine 2011;5:3. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
McFarlane 1997
    1. McFarlane AC, Atchison M, Yehuda R. The acute stress response following motor vehicle accidents and its relation to PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1997;821:437-41. [PMID: ] - PubMed
McNally 2003
    1. McNally GP, Westbrook RF. Temporally graded, context-specific retrograde amnesia and its alleviation by context preexposure: effects of postconditioning exposures to morphine in the rat. Journal of Experimental Psychology 2003;29(2):130-42. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Meyerhoff 2014
    1. Meyerhoff DJ, Mon A, Metzler T, Neylan TC. Cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in posttraumatic stress disorder and their relationships to self-reported sleep quality. Sleep 2014;37(5):893-900. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Montgomery 1979
    1. Montgomery SA, Asberg M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. British Journal of Psychiatry 1979;134:382-9. [DOI: 10.1192/bjp.134.4.382] - DOI - PubMed
Mouthaan 2015
    1. Mouthaan J, Sijbrandij M, Reitsma JB, Luitse JS, Goslings JC, Gersons BP, et al. The role of early pharmacotherapy in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms after traumatic injury: an observational cohort study in consecutive patients. General Hospital Psychiatry 2015;37(3):230-5. [PMID: ] - PubMed
NICE 2018
    1. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Post-traumatic stress disorder: management (NG116). www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng116 2018. - PubMed
Nickerson 2013
    1. Nickerson A, Aderka IM, Bryant RA, Hofmann SG. The role of attribution of trauma responsibility in posttraumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Depression and Anxiety 2013;30(5):483-8. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Olff 2010
    1. Olff M, Langeland W, Witteveen A, Denys D. A psychobiological rationale for oxytocin in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrums 2010;15(8):522-30. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Phoenix Australia 2021
    1. Phoenix Australia. The Australian Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Acute Stress Disorder (ASD), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Complex PTSD. Available at https://www.phoenixaustralia.org/australian-guidelines-for-ptsd/ 2021.
Pitman 1989
    1. Pitman RK. Post-traumatic stress disorder, hormones, and memory. Biological Psychiatry 1989;26(3):221-3. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Pitman 2012
    1. Pitman RK, Rasmusson AM, Koenen KC, Shin LM, Orr SP, Gilbertson MW, et al. Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 2012;13(11):769-87. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Qi 2016
    1. Qi W, Gevonden M, Shalev A. Prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder after trauma: current evidence and future directions. Current Psychiatry Reports 2016;18(2):20. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
R 2017 [Computer program]
    1. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2017.
Reist 2001
    1. Reist C, Duffy JG, Fujimoto K, Cahill L. beta-Adrenergic blockade and emotional memory in PTSD. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2001;4(4):377-83. - PubMed
Ressler 2020
    1. Ressler KJ. Translating across circuits and genetics toward progress in fear- and anxiety-related disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 2020;177(3):214-22. [DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20010055] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Review Manager 2014 [Computer program]
    1. Review Manager 5 (RevMan 5). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
Roberts 2019
    1. Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Kenardy J, Robertson L, Lewis C, Bisson JI. Multiple session early psychological interventions for the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019, Issue 8. Art. No: CD006869. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006869.pub3] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Salanti 2014
    1. Salanti G, Del Giovane C, Chaimani A, Caldwell DM, Higgins JP. Evaluating the quality of evidence from a network meta-analysis. PLOS One 2014;9(7):e99682. [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099682] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Santarelli 2003
    1. Santarelli L, Saxe M, Gross C, Surget A, Battaglia F, Dulawa S, et al. Requirement of hippocampal neurogenesis for the behavioral effects of antidepressants. Science 2003 ;301(5634):805-9. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1083328] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Schünemann 2011
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JPT, Vist GE, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 11: Presenting results and ‘Summary of findings' tables. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from training.cochrane.org/handbook/archive/v5.1/.
Sheehan 1996
    1. Sheehan DV, Harnett-Sheehan K, Raj BA. The measurement of disability. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 1996;11(Suppl 3):89-95. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Sijbrandij 2015
    1. Sijbrandij M, Kleiboer A, Bisson JI, Barbui C, Cuijpers P. Pharmacological prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2(5):413-21. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Southwick 1999
    1. Southwick SM, Bremner JD, Rasmusson A, Morgan CA 3rd, Arnsten A, Charney DS. Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 1999;46(9):1192-204. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Spielberger 1970
    1. Spielberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE. Manual for the Stait-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970.
Steel 2009
    1. Steel Z, Chey T, Silove D, Marnane C, Bryant RA, Ommeren M. Association of torture and other potentially traumatic events with mental health outcomes among populations exposed to mass conflict and displacement: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2009;302(5):537-49. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Stein 2006
    1. Stein DJ, Ipser JC, Seedat S. Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 1. Art. No: CD002795. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002795.pub2] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Turrini 2017
    1. Turrini G, Purgato M, Ballette F, Nose M, Ostuzzi G, Barbui C. Common mental disorders in asylum seekers and refugees: umbrella review of prevalence and intervention studies. International Journal of Mental Health Systems 2017;11:51. [PMID: ] - PMC - PubMed
Van Ameringen 2004
    1. Van Ameringen M, Mancini C, Pipe B, Bennett M. Antiepileptic drugs in the treatment of anxiety disorders: role in therapy. Drugs 2004;64(19):2199-220. [PMID: ] - PubMed
van Valkenhoef 2016
    1. Valkenhoef G, Dias S, Ades AE, Welton NJ. Automated generation of node-splitting models for assessment of inconsistency in network meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods 2016;7(1):80-93. [DOI: 10.1002/jrsm.1167] [PMID: ] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
van Zuiden 2017
    1. Zuiden M, Frijling JL, Nawijn L, Koch SBJ, Goslings JC, Luitse JS, et al. Intranasal oxytocin to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: a randomized controlled trial in emergency department patients. Biological Psychiatry 2017;81(12):1030-40. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense 2017
    1. Veterans Affairs/Department of Defense. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guidelines: Management of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Acute Stress Reaction. Available at https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/ptsd/VADoDPTSDCPGFinal012... 2017.
Ware 1992
    1. Ware JE, Sherbourne CD. The MOS 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36): I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Medical Care 1992;30:473-81. [PMID: ] - PubMed
Weathers 2001
    1. Weathers FW, Keane TM, Davidson JR. Clinician-administered PTSD scale: a review of the first ten years of research. Depression and Anxiety 2001;13(3):132-56. [1091-4269: (Print)] - PubMed
WHO 1997
    1. World Health Organization. Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) 2.1. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1997.
WHO 2017
    1. World Health Organization. The selection and use of essential medicines: report of the WHO Expert Committee, 2017 (including the 20th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines and the 6th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines for Children). Geneva: World Health Organization, 2017.
WHO 2018
    1. WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology. ATC classification index with DDDs, 2019. Oslo, Norway: WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology, 2018. Available at www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index.
WHO 2019
    1. World Health Organization. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11). https://icd.who.int/browse11. World Health Organization, 2019.
WinBUGS 2000
    1. Lunn DJ, Thomas A, Best N, Spiegelhalter D. WinBUGS — a Bayesian modelling framework: concepts, structure, and extensibility. Statistics and Computing 2000;10(4):325-37.
Yepes‐Nunez 2019
    1. Yepes-Nunez JJ, Li SA, Guyatt G, Jack SM, Brozek JL, Beyene J, et al. Development of the summary of findings table for network meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2019;115:1-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2019.04.018] [PMID: ] - DOI - PubMed
Zatzick 1997
    1. Zatzick DF, Marmar CR, Weiss DS, Browner WS, Metzler TJ, Golding JM, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder and functioning and quality of life outcomes in a nationally representative sample of male Vietnam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry 1997;154(12):1690-5. [PMID: ] - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Bertolini 2020
    1. Bertolini F, Robertson L, Ostuzzi G, Meader N, Bisson JI, Churchill R, et al. Early pharmacological interventions for acute traumatic stress symptoms: a network meta‐analysis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020, Issue 5. Art. No: CD013613. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD013613] - DOI - PMC - PubMed

MeSH terms

Associated data