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Review
. 2022 Sep 8;19(18):11303.
doi: 10.3390/ijerph191811303.

Revisiting Standard and Novel Therapeutic Approaches in Halitosis: A Review

Catarina Izidoro  1   2 , João Botelho  1   2 , Vanessa Machado  1   2 , Ana Mafalda Reis  3   4 , Luís Proença  5 , Ricardo Castro Alves  1   2 , José João Mendes  2
Affiliations
Review

Revisiting Standard and Novel Therapeutic Approaches in Halitosis: A Review

Catarina Izidoro et al. Int J Environ Res Public Health. .

Abstract

Halitosis, or bad breath, is an oral health problem characterized by an unpleasant malodor emanating from the oral cavity. This condition can have different origins and causes a negative burden in social interactions, communication and quality of life, and can in uncommon cases be indicative of underlying non-oral non-communicable diseases. Most cases of halitosis are due to inadequate oral hygiene, periodontitis and tongue coating, yet the remaining proportion of cases are due to ear-nose-throat-associated (10%) or gastrointestinal/endocrine (5%) disorders. For this reason, the diagnosis, treatment and clinical management of halitosis often require a multidisciplinary team approach. This comprehensive review revisits the etiology of halitosis as well as standard and novel treatment that may contribute to higher clinical success.

Keywords: halitosis; mouthwashes; periodontal disease; periodontitis; probiotics; tongue coating.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Pathophysiology of halitosis. Bacteria present in the gingival pockets and the dorsum of the tongue metabolize amino acids through enzymes into volatile sulfur compounds that are exhaled.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Current classification of halitosis.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Treatment approach based on halitosis types and etiology.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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Grants and funding

This work is financed by national funds through the FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., under the Project UIDB/04585/2020.