Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2017 Feb 25;2(2):CD009275.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD009275.pub3.

Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus

Shanshan Han  1 , Philippa Middleton  1   2 , Emily Shepherd  1 , Emer Van Ryswyk  1 , Caroline A Crowther  3
Affiliations
Review

Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus

Shanshan Han et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Dietary advice is the main strategy for managing gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). It remains unclear what type of advice is best.

Objectives: To assess the effects of different types of dietary advice for women with GDM for improving health outcomes for women and babies.

Search methods: We searched Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth's Trials Register (8 March 2016), PSANZ's Trials Registry (22 March 2016) and reference lists of retrieved studies.

Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials comparing the effects of different types of dietary advice for women with GDM.

Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently assessed study eligibility, risk of bias, and extracted data. Evidence quality for two comparisons was assessed using GRADE, for primary outcomes for the mother: hypertensive disorders of pregnancy; caesarean section; type 2 diabetes mellitus; and child: large-for-gestational age; perinatal mortality; neonatal mortality or morbidity composite; neurosensory disability; secondary outcomes for the mother: induction of labour; perineal trauma; postnatal depression; postnatal weight retention or return to pre-pregnancy weight; and child: hypoglycaemia; childhood/adulthood adiposity; childhood/adulthood type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Main results: In this update, we included 19 trials randomising 1398 women with GDM, at an overall unclear to moderate risk of bias (10 comparisons). For outcomes assessed using GRADE, downgrading was based on study limitations, imprecision and inconsistency. Where no findings are reported below for primary outcomes or pre-specified GRADE outcomes, no data were provided by included trials. Primary outcomes Low-moderate glycaemic index (GI) versus moderate-high GI diet (four trials): no clear differences observed for: large-for-gestational age (risk ratio (RR) 0.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.22 to 2.34; two trials, 89 infants; low-quality evidence); severe hypertension or pre-eclampsia (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.07 to 15.86; one trial, 95 women; very low-quality evidence); eclampsia (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.01 to 8.14; one trial, 83 women; very low-quality evidence) or caesarean section (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.29 to 1.47; one trial, 63 women; low-quality evidence). Energy-restricted versus no energy-restricted diet (three trials): no clear differences seen for: large-for-gestational age (RR 1.17, 95% CI 0.65 to 2.12; one trial, 123 infants; low-quality evidence); perinatal mortality (no events; two trials, 423 infants; low-quality evidence); pre-eclampsia (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.51 to 1.97; one trial, 117 women; low-quality evidence); or caesarean section (RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.80 to 1.56; two trials, 420 women; low-quality evidence). DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diet versus control diet (three trials): no clear differences observed for: pre-eclampsia (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.31 to 3.26; three trials, 136 women); however there were fewer caesarean sections in the DASH diet group (RR 0.53, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.76; two trials, 86 women). Low-carbohydrate versus high-carbohydrate diet (two trials): no clear differences seen for: large-for-gestational age (RR 0.51, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.95; one trial, 149 infants); perinatal mortality (RR 3.00, 95% CI 0.12 to 72.49; one trial, 150 infants); maternal hypertension (RR 0.40, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.22; one trial, 150 women); or caesarean section (RR 1.29, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.99; two trials, 179 women). High unsaturated fat versus low unsaturated fat diet (two trials): no clear differences observed for: large-for-gestational age (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.21 to 1.37; one trial, 27 infants); pre-eclampsia (no cases; one trial, 27 women); hypertension in pregnancy (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.06 to 5.26; one trial, 27 women); caesarean section (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.07 to 15.50; one trial, 27 women); diabetes at one to two weeks (RR 2.00, 95% CI 0.45 to 8.94; one trial, 24 women) or four to 13 months postpartum (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.10 to 9.61; one trial, six women). Low-GI versus high-fibre moderate-GI diet (one trial): no clear differences seen for: large-for-gestational age (RR 2.87, 95% CI 0.61 to 13.50; 92 infants); caesarean section (RR 1.91, 95% CI 0.91 to 4.03; 92 women); or type 2 diabetes at three months postpartum (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.11 to 5.01; 58 women). Diet recommendation plus diet-related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only (one trial): no clear differences observed for: large-for-gestational age (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.25 to 2.14; 99 infants); or caesarean section (RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.38 to 1.62; 99 women). Soy protein-enriched versus no soy protein diet (one trial): no clear differences seen for: pre-eclampsia (RR 2.00, 95% CI 0.19 to 21.03; 68 women); or caesarean section (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.57 to 1.77; 68 women). High-fibre versus standard-fibre diet (one trial): no primary outcomes reported. Ethnic-specific versus standard healthy diet (one trial): no clear differences observed for: large-for-gestational age (RR 0.14, 95% CI 0.01 to 2.45; 20 infants); neonatal composite adverse outcome (no events; 20 infants); gestational hypertension (RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.02 to 7.32; 20 women); or caesarean birth (RR 1.20, 95% CI 0.54 to 2.67; 20 women). Secondary outcomes For secondary outcomes assessed using GRADE no differences were observed: between a low-moderate and moderate-high GI diet for induction of labour (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.33 to 2.34; one trial, 63 women; low-quality evidence); or an energy-restricted and no energy-restricted diet for induction of labour (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.53; one trial, 114 women, low-quality evidence) and neonatal hypoglycaemia (average RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.48 to 2.32; two trials, 408 infants; very low-quality evidence).Few other clear differences were observed for reported outcomes. Longer-term health outcomes and health services use and costs were largely not reported.

Authors' conclusions: Evidence from 19 trials assessing different types of dietary advice for women with GDM suggests no clear differences for primary outcomes and secondary outcomes assessed using GRADE, except for a possible reduction in caesarean section for women receiving a DASH diet compared with a control diet. Few differences were observed for secondary outcomes.Current evidence is limited by the small number of trials in each comparison, small sample sizes, and variable methodological quality. More evidence is needed to assess the effects of different types of dietary advice for women with GDM. Future trials should be adequately powered to evaluate short- and long-term outcomes.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Shanshan Han: none known.

Philippa Middleton: none known.

Emily Shepherd: none known.

Emer Van Ryswyk: none known.

Caroline A Crowther: none known.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
'Risk of bias' graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
'Risk of bias' summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 2 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (severe hypertension or pre‐eclampsia).
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 3 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (eclampsia).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 4 Caesarean section.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 5 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 6 Preterm birth.
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 7 Macrosomia.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 8 Small‐for‐gestational age.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 9 Birthweight (g).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 10 Head circumference at birth (cm).
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 11 Length at birth (cm).
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 12 Ponderal index at birth (kg/m³).
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 13 Normal vaginal birth.
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 14 Operative vaginal birth.
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 15 Induction of labour.
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 16 Postpartum haemorrhage.
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 17 Postpartum infection.
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 18 Gestational weight gain (kg).
1.19
1.19. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 19 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
1.20
1.20. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 20 Glycaemic control: end of intervention fasting plasma glucose (mmol/L).
1.21
1.21. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 21 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 2‐hour postprandial glucose (mmol/L).
1.22
1.22. Analysis
Comparison 1 Low‐moderate GI diet versus moderate‐high GI diet, Outcome 22 Glycaemic control: end of intervention HbA1c (%).
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 2 Perinatal mortality (stillbirth and neonatal mortality).
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 3 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: pre‐eclampsia.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 4 Caesarean section.
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 5 Stillbirth.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 6 Neonatal mortality.
2.7
2.7. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 7 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
2.8
2.8. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 8 Macrosomia (> 4000 g).
2.9
2.9. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 9 Macrosomia (> 4500 g).
2.10
2.10. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 10 Birthweight (g).
2.11
2.11. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 11 Shoulder dystocia.
2.12
2.12. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 12 Bone fracture.
2.13
2.13. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 13 Nerve palsy.
2.14
2.14. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 14 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
2.15
2.15. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 15 Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia.
2.16
2.16. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 16 Neonatal hypocalcaemia.
2.17
2.17. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 17 Normal vaginal birth.
2.18
2.18. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 18 Operative vaginal birth.
2.19
2.19. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 19 Induction of labour.
2.20
2.20. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 20 Gestational weight gain (kg).
2.21
2.21. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 21 Gestational weight gain: weight at birth (kg).
2.22
2.22. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 22 Insulin sensitivity: during intervention fasting plasma insulin (pM).
2.23
2.23. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 23 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention fasting plasma insulin (pM).
2.24
2.24. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 24 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
2.25
2.25. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 25 Glycaemic control: during intervention preprandial/fasting glucose (mmol/L).
2.26
2.26. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 26 Glycaemic control: during intervention 24 hour mean plasma glucose (mmol/L).
2.27
2.27. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 27 Glycaemic control: during intervention 1 hour postprandial glucose (mmol/L).
2.28
2.28. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 28 Glycaemic control: end of intervention preprandial/fasting glucose (mmol/L).
2.29
2.29. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 29 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 24‐hour mean plasma glucose (mmol/L).
2.30
2.30. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 30 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 1‐hour postprandial glucose (mmol/L).
2.31
2.31. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 31 Glycaemic control: during/at end of intervention fasting glucose (mmol/L).
2.32
2.32. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 32 Glycaemic control: during/at end of intervention mean plasma glucose (mmol/L).
2.33
2.33. Analysis
Comparison 2 Energy‐restricted diet versus no energy‐restricted diet, Outcome 33 Glycaemic control: during/at end of intervention mean HbA1c (%).
3.1
3.1. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 1 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: pre‐eclampsia.
3.2
3.2. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
3.3
3.3. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 3 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
3.4
3.4. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 4 Macrosomia (≥ 4000 g).
3.5
3.5. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 5 Birthweight (g).
3.6
3.6. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 6 Head circumference at birth (cm).
3.7
3.7. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 7 Length at birth(cm).
3.8
3.8. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 8 Ponderal index at birth (kg/m³).
3.9
3.9. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 9 Placental abruption.
3.10
3.10. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 10 Gestational weight gain: BMI at end of intervention (kg/m²).
3.11
3.11. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 11 Gestational weight gain: weight at end of intervention (kg).
3.12
3.12. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 12 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention HOMA‐IR.
3.13
3.13. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 13 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention insulin (µIU/mL).
3.14
3.14. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 14 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
3.15
3.15. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 15 Glycaemic control: end of intervention fasting blood glucose (mmol/L).
3.16
3.16. Analysis
Comparison 3 DASH diet versus control diet with matching macronutrient contents, Outcome 16 Glycaemic control: at end of intervention HbA1c (%).
4.1
4.1. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
4.2
4.2. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 2 Perinatal mortality (stillbirth and neonatal mortality).
4.3
4.3. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 3 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: maternal hypertension.
4.4
4.4. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 4 Caesarean section.
4.5
4.5. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 5 Stillbirth.
4.6
4.6. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 6 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
4.7
4.7. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 7 Macrosomia (> 4000 g).
4.8
4.8. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 8 Small‐for‐gestational age.
4.9
4.9. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 9 Birthweight (g).
4.10
4.10. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 10 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
4.11
4.11. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 11 Normal vaginal birth.
4.12
4.12. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 12 Operative vaginal birth.
4.13
4.13. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 13 Gestational weight gain: maternal weight gain (kg).
4.14
4.14. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 14 Adherence to dietary intervention: fully applied the recommended menu.
4.15
4.15. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 15 Use of additional pharmacotherapy..
4.16
4.16. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 16 Glycaemic control: end of intervention fasting blood glucose (mg/dL).
4.17
4.17. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 17 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 2‐hour post breakfast blood glucose (mg/dL).
4.18
4.18. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 18 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 2‐hour post lunch blood glucose (mg/dL).
4.19
4.19. Analysis
Comparison 4 Low‐carbohydrate diet versus high‐carbohydrate diet, Outcome 19 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 2‐hour post dinner blood glucose (mg/dL).
5.1
5.1. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
5.2
5.2. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 2 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: pre‐eclampsia.
5.3
5.3. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 3 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: hypertension in pregnancy.
5.4
5.4. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 4 Caesarean section.
5.5
5.5. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 5 Type 2 diabetes: 'diabetic' OGTT 1‐2 weeks postpartum.
5.6
5.6. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 6 Type 2 diabetes: 'diabetic' OGTT 4‐13 months postpartum.
5.7
5.7. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 7 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
5.8
5.8. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 8 Preterm birth.
5.9
5.9. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 9 Macrosomia (> 4000 g).
5.10
5.10. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 10 Birthweight (g).
5.11
5.11. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 11 Placental abruption.
5.12
5.12. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 12 Gestational weight gain (kg).
5.13
5.13. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 13 Gestational weight gain: BMI at birth (kg/m²).
5.14
5.14. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 14 Gestational weight gain: weight at birth (kg).
5.15
5.15. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 15 Insulin sensitivity: during intervention (38 week) insulin (mU/L).
5.16
5.16. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 16 Insulin sensitivity: during intervention (38 week) insulin sensitivity (10‐5 min‐1 per mU/L min).
5.17
5.17. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 17 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention IAI.
5.18
5.18. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 18 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
5.19
5.19. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 19 Glycaemic control: during intervention (38 week) fasting blood glucose (mmol/L).
5.20
5.20. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 20 Glycaemic control: during intervention (38 week) postprandial glucose (mmol/L).
5.21
5.21. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 21 Glycaemic control: during intervention (38 week) HbA1c (%).
5.22
5.22. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 22 Glycaemic control: end of intervention fasting blood glucose (mmol/L).
5.23
5.23. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 23 Glycaemic control: end of intervention 2‐hour postprandial blood glucose (mmol/L).
5.24
5.24. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 24 BMI 5‐9 months postpartum (kg/m²).
5.25
5.25. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 25 Impaired glucose tolerance: 'borderline' OGTT 1‐2 weeks postpartum.
5.26
5.26. Analysis
Comparison 5 High unsaturated fat diet versus low unsaturated fat diet with matching calories, Outcome 26 Impaired glucose tolerance: 'borderline' OGTT 4‐13 months postpartum.
6.1
6.1. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
6.2
6.2. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
6.3
6.3. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 3 Type 2 diabetes mellitus at 3 months postpartum.
6.4
6.4. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 4 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
6.5
6.5. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 5 Preterm birth.
6.6
6.6. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 6 Macrosomia (> 4000 g).
6.7
6.7. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 7 Small‐for‐gestational age.
6.8
6.8. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 8 Birthweight (g).
6.9
6.9. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 9 Head circumference at birth (cm).
6.10
6.10. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 10 Length at birth (cm).
6.11
6.11. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 11 Ponderal index at birth (kg/m³).
6.13
6.13. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 13 Weight gain during pregnancy (kg).
6.14
6.14. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 14 Adherence to dietary intervention.
6.15
6.15. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 15 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention: HOMA2‐IR (%).
6.16
6.16. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 16 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention insulin (pmol/L).
6.17
6.17. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 17 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
6.18
6.18. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 18 Glycaemic control: end of intervention blood glucose (mmol/L).
6.20
6.20. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 20 Return to pre‐pregnancy weight at 3 months postpartum.
6.21
6.21. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 21 BMI at 3 months postpartum (kg/m²).
6.22
6.22. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 22 Impaired glucose tolerance at 3 months postpartum.
6.23
6.23. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 23 Insulin sensitivity at 3 months postpartum (insulin (pmol/L)).
6.24
6.24. Analysis
Comparison 6 Low‐GI diet versus high‐fibre moderate‐GI diet, Outcome 24 Insulin sensitivity at 3 months postpartum (HOMA‐IR (%)).
7.1
7.1. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
7.2
7.2. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
7.3
7.3. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 3 Preterm birth (< 37 weeks' gestation).
7.4
7.4. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 4 Gestational weight gain: BMI at end of intervention (kg/m²).
7.5
7.5. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 5 Gestational weight gain: weight at end of intervention (kg).
7.6
7.6. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 6 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention HOMA‐IR.
7.7
7.7. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 7 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention fasting insulin (µU/mL).
7.8
7.8. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 8 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
7.9
7.9. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 9 Glycaemic control: end of intervention fasting glucose (mg/dL).
7.10
7.10. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 10 Glycaemic control: end of intervention postprandial glucose (mg/dL).
7.11
7.11. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 11 Glycaemic control: end of intervention HbA1c (%).
7.12
7.12. Analysis
Comparison 7 Diet recommendation + diet‐related behavioural advice versus diet recommendation only, Outcome 12 Length of postnatal stay (baby): stay > 4 days.
8.1
8.1. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 1 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: pre‐eclampsia.
8.2
8.2. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 2 Caesarean section.
8.3
8.3. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 3 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
8.4
8.4. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 4 Preterm birth (< 37 weeks' gestation).
8.5
8.5. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 5 Macrosomia (> 4000 g).
8.6
8.6. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 6 Birthweight (g).
8.7
8.7. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 7 Head circumference at birth (cm).
8.8
8.8. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 8 Length at birth (cm).
8.9
8.9. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 9 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
8.10
8.10. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 10 Neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia.
8.11
8.11. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 11 Gestational weight gain: BMI at end of intervention (kg/m²).
8.12
8.12. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 12 Gestational weight gain: weight at end of intervention (kg).
8.13
8.13. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 13 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention HOMA‐IR.
8.14
8.14. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 14 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention QUICKI.
8.15
8.15. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 15 Insulin sensitivity: end of intervention insulin (µIU/mL).
8.16
8.16. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 16 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
8.17
8.17. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 17 Glycaemic control: end of intervention fasting plasma glucose (mg/dL).
8.18
8.18. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 18 Number of antenatal visits or admissions: maternal hospitalisation.
8.19
8.19. Analysis
Comparison 8 Soy protein‐enriched diet versus no soy protein diet, Outcome 19 Neonatal intensive care unit admission: neonatal hospitalisations.
9.1
9.1. Analysis
Comparison 9 High‐fibre diet versus standard‐fibre diet, Outcome 1 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
9.2
9.2. Analysis
Comparison 9 High‐fibre diet versus standard‐fibre diet, Outcome 2 Birthweight (g).
9.3
9.3. Analysis
Comparison 9 High‐fibre diet versus standard‐fibre diet, Outcome 3 Gestational weight gain (kg).
9.4
9.4. Analysis
Comparison 9 High‐fibre diet versus standard‐fibre diet, Outcome 4 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
9.5
9.5. Analysis
Comparison 9 High‐fibre diet versus standard‐fibre diet, Outcome 5 Glycaemic control during/at end of intervention: mean blood glucose (mg/dL).
9.6
9.6. Analysis
Comparison 9 High‐fibre diet versus standard‐fibre diet, Outcome 6 Maternal hypoglycaemia: mean number of events.
10.1
10.1. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 1 Large‐for‐gestational age.
10.2
10.2. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 2 Neonatal composite outcome: hypoglycaemia, neonatal asphyxia, respiratory distress syndrome, and hyperbilirubinaemia, hypocalcaemia.
10.3
10.3. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 3 Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: gestational hypertension.
10.4
10.4. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 4 Caesarean section.
10.5
10.5. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 5 Gestational age at birth (weeks).
10.6
10.6. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 6 Macrosomia (> 4000 g).
10.7
10.7. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 7 Small‐for‐gestational age.
10.8
10.8. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 8 Birthweight (g).
10.9
10.9. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 9 Respiratory distress syndrome.
10.10
10.10. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 10 Neonatal hypoglycaemia.
10.11
10.11. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 11 Neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia.
10.12
10.12. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 12 Neonatal hypocalcaemia.
10.13
10.13. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 13 Gestational weight gain (kg).
10.14
10.14. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 14 Adherence to dietary intervention: good adherence.
10.15
10.15. Analysis
Comparison 10 Ethnic‐specific diet versus standard healthy diet, Outcome 15 Use of additional pharmacotherapy.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Asemi 2013a {published data only}
    1. Asemi Z, Tabassi Z, Samimi M, Fahiminejad T, Esmaillzadeh A. Favourable effects of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diet on glucose tolerance and lipid profiles in gestational diabetes: a randomised clinical trial. British Journal of Nutrition 2013;109(11):2024‐30. - PubMed
Asemi 2013b {published data only}
    1. Asemi Z, Samimi M, Tabassi Z, Sabihi SS, Esmaillzadeh A. A randomized controlled clinical trial investigating the effect of DASH diet on insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes. Nutrition 2013;29(4):619‐24. - PubMed
Asemi 2014 {published data only}
    1. Asemi Z, Samimi M, Tabassi Z, Esmaillzadeh A. The effect of DASH diet on pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes: A randomized controlled clinical trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2014;68(4):490‐5. - PubMed
Balas‐Nakash 2010 {published data only}
    1. Balas‐Nakash M, Rodriguez‐Cano A, Munoz‐Manrique C, Vasquez‐Pena P, Perichart‐Perera O. Adherence to a medical nutrition therapy program in pregnant women with diabetes, measured by three methods, and its association with glycemic control [Tres metodos para medir la adherencia a un programa de terapia medica y nutricia en mujeres embarazadas con diabetes y su asociacion con el control glucemico]. Revista De Investigacion Clinica 2010;62(3):235‐43. - PubMed
Bo 2014 {published data only}
    1. Bo S, Rosato R, Ciccone G, Canil S, Gambino R, Botto Poala C, et al. Simple lifestyle recommendations and the outcomes of gestational diabetes. A 2x2 factorial randomized trial. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism 2014; Vol. 16, issue 10:1032‐5. - PubMed
Cypryk 2007 {published data only}
    1. Cypryk K, Kaminska P, Kosinski M, Pertynska‐Marczewska M, Lewinski A. A comparison of the effectiveness, tolerability and safety of high and low carbohydrate diets in women with gestational diabetes. Endokrynologia Polska 2007;58(4):314‐9. - PubMed
Garner 1997 {published data only}
    1. Garner P, Okun N, Keely E, Wells G, Perkins S, Sylvain J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of strict glycemic control and tertiary level obstetric care versus routine obstetric care in the management of gestational diabetes: a pilot study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1997;177(1):190‐5. - PubMed
Grant 2011 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Grant SM, Wolever TMS, O'Connor DL, Nisenbaum R, Josse RG. Effect of a low glycaemic index diet on blood glucose in women with gestational hyperglycaemia. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2011;91(1):15‐22. - PubMed
Jamilian 2015 {published data only}
    1. Jamilian M, Asemi Z. The effect of soy intake on metabolic profiles of women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2015;100(12):4654‐61. - PubMed
Lauszus 2001 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Lauszus FF, Rasmussen OW, Henriksen JE, Klebe JG, Jensen L, Lauszus KS, et al. Effect of a high monounsaturated fatty acid diet on blood pressure and glucose metabolism in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001;55(6):436‐43. - PubMed
Louie 2011 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Louie JC, Markovic TP, Perera N, Foote D, Petocz P, Ross GP, et al. Randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of a low‐glycemic index diet on pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2011;34(11):2341‐6. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Louie JC, Markovic TP, Ross TP, Foote D, Brand‐Miller JC. Effect of a low glycaemic index diet in gestational diabetes mellitus on post‐natal outcomes after 3 months of birth: a pilot follow‐up study. Maternal and Child Nutrition 2015; Vol. 11, issue 3:409‐14. - PMC - PubMed
Ma 2015 {published data only}
    1. Ma WJ, Huang ZH, Huang BX, Qi BH, Zhang YJ, Xiao BX, et al. Intensive low‐glycaemic‐load dietary intervention for the management of glycaemia and serum lipids among women with gestational diabetes: a randomized control trial. Public Health Nutrition 2015;18(8):1506‐13. - PMC - PubMed
Magee 1990 {published data only}
    1. Magee MS, Knopp RH, Benedetti TJ. Metabolic effects of 1200‐kcal diet in obese pregnant women with gestational diabetes. Diabetes 1990;39:234‐40. - PubMed
Moreno‐Castilla 2013 {published data only}
    1. Moreno‐Castilla C, Hernandez M, Bergua M, Alvarez MC, Arce MA, Rodriguez K, et al. Low carbohydrate diet for the treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 2013;36(8):2233‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Moses 2009 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Moses RG, Barker M, Winter M, Petocz P, Brand‐Miller JC. Can a low‐glycemic index diet reduce the need for insulin in gestational diabetes mellitus? A randomized trial. Diabetes Care 2009;32(6):996‐1000. - PMC - PubMed
Rae 2000 {published data only}
    1. Rae A, Bond D, Evans S, North F, Roberman B, Walters B. A randomised controlled trial of dietary energy restriction in the management of obese women with gestational diabetes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2000;40(4):416‐22. - PubMed
Reece 1995 {published data only}
    1. Reece EA, Hagay Z, Gay LJ, O'Connor T, DeGennaro N, Homko CJ, et al. A randomized clinical trial of a fiber‐enriched diabetic diet vs. the standard American Diabetes Association‐recommended diet in the management of diabetes mellitus in pregnancy. Journal of Maternal‐Fetal Investigation 1995;5:8‐12.
Valentini 2012 {published data only}
    1. Valentini R, Dalfra MG, Masin M, Barison A, Marialisa M, Pegoraro E, et al. A pilot study on dietary approaches in multiethnicity: two methods compared. International Journal of Endocrinology 2012;2012:985136. - PMC - PubMed
Wang 2015 {published data only}
    1. Wang H, Jiang H, Yang L, Zhang M. Impacts of dietary fat changes on pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled study. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2015;24(1):58‐64. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Cao 2012 {published data only}
    1. Cao X, Wang Z, Yang C, Mo X, Xiu L, Li Y, et al. Comprehensive intensive therapy for Chinese gestational diabetes benefits both newborns and mothers. Diabetes Technology and Therapeutics 2012;14(11):1002‐7. - PubMed
Chua 2008 {published data only}
    1. Chua CV, Inocentes P, Yap M, Brito I. A randomized controlled study on the effect of magnesium chloride supplementation in gestational diabetes mellitus patients. Philippine Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2008;32(4):163‐8.
Corrado 2011 {published data only}
    1. Corrado F, D'Anna R, Veste G, Giordano D, Pintaudi B, Santamaria A, et al. The effect of myoinositol supplementation on insulin resistance in patients with gestational diabetes. Diabetic Medicine 2011;28(8):972‐5. - PubMed
Deveer 2013 {published data only}
    1. Deveer R, Deveer M, Akbaba E, Engin‐Ustun Y, Aydogan P, Celikkaya H, et al. The effect of diet on pregnancy outcomes among pregnant with abnormal glucose challenge test. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences 2013;17(9):1258‐61. - PubMed
Ehrlich 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ehrlich SF, Hedderson MM, Feng J, Crites Y, Quesenberry CP, Ferrara A. Lifestyle intervention improves postpartum fasting glucose levels in women with gestational diabetes. Diabetes 2014;63(Suppl 1):A95, Abstract no: 363‐OR.
Gillen 2004 {published data only}
    1. Gillen LJ, Tapsell LC. Advice that includes food sources of unsaturated fat supports future risk management of gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2004;104:1863‐7. - PubMed
Gillmer 1986 {published data only}
    1. Gillmer MDG, Maresh M, Beard RW, Elkeles RS, Alderson C, Bloxham B. Low energy diets in the treatment of gestational diabetes. Acta Endocrinologica. Supplementum 1986;277:44‐9. - PubMed
Gonai 2014 {published data only}
    1. Gonai M, Nakadaira I, Kurasaki K, Hamano K. The effects of lactobacilli on glycemic control and the secretion of glucagon‐like peptide‐1 in Japanese gestational diabetes mellitus patients. Diabetes 2014;63(Suppl 1):A333, Abstract no: 1278‐P.
Hernandez 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hernandez TL, Barbour LA, Friedman JE, Reece MS, Krause MA, Pelt RE. Higher carboydrate versus higher fat diet in gestational diabetes: a pilot study. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing 2012;41:S124.
    1. Hernandez TL, Vanpelt RE, Krause MA, Reece MS, Donahoo WT, Mande A, et al. Higher carbohydrate vs. higher fat diet in gestational diabetes: A randomized study. Diabetes 2012;61 Suppl 1:A50.
Hernandez 2014 {published data only}
    1. Hernandez TL, Pelt RE, Anderson MA, Daniels LJ, West NA, Donahoo WT, et al. A higher‐complex carbohydrate diet in gestational diabetes mellitus achieves glucose targets and lowers postprandial lipids: a randomized crossover study. Diabetes Care 2014;37(5):1254‐62. - PMC - PubMed
Hernandez 2016 {published data only}
    1. Hernandez TL, Pelt RE, Anderson MA, Reece MS, Reynolds RM, Houssaye BA, et al. Women with gestational diabetes randomized to a higher‐complex carbohydrate/low‐fat diet manifest lower adipose tissue insulin resistance, inflammation, glucose, and free fatty acids: a pilot study. Diabetes Care 2016;39(1):39‐42. - PMC - PubMed
Hosseinzadeh‐Shamsi‐Anar 2012 {published data only}
    1. Hosseinzadeh‐Shamsi‐Anar M, Mozaffari‐Khosravi H, Salami MA, Hadinedoushan H, Mozayan MR. The efficacy and safety of a high dose of vitamin d in mothers with gestational diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences 2012;37(3):159‐65. - PMC - PubMed
Hu 2014 {published data only}
    1. Hu ZG, Tan RS, Jin D, Li W, Zhou XY. A low glycemic index staple diet reduces postprandial glucose values in Asian women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Journal of Investigative Medicine 2014;62(8):975‐9. - PubMed
Ilic 1999 {published data only}
    1. Ilic S, Jovanovic L, Pettitt DJ. Comparison of the effect of saturated and monounsaturated fat on postprandial plasma glucose and insulin concentration in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Perinatology 1999;16(9):489‐95. - PubMed
Jamilian 2016 {published data only}
    1. Jamilian M, Samimi M, Kolahdooz F, Khalaji F, Razavi M, Asemi Z. Omega‐3 fatty acid supplementation affects pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes: a randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Journal of Maternal‐Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 2016;29(4):669‐75. - PubMed
Knopp 1991 {published data only}
    1. Knopp RH, Magee MS, Raisys V, Benedetti T, Bonet B. Hypocaloric diets and ketogenesis in the management of obese gestational diabetic women. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1991;10(6):649‐67. - PubMed
Li 2013 {published data only}
    1. NCT01912170. Effect of omega‐3 fatty acids on insulin sensitivity in Chinese gestational diabetic patients. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01912170 Date first received: 27 July 2013.
Lindsay 2014 {published data only}
    1. ISRCTN97241163. A randomised control trial of probiotics in pregnancy to reduce maternal glucose in obese and gestational diabetic women. isrctn.com/ISRCTN97241163 Date first recieved: 9 March 2012.
    1. Lindsay KL, Kennelly M, Culliton M, Smith T, Maguire OC, Shanahan F, et al. Probiotics in obese pregnancy do not reduce maternal fasting glucose: a double‐blind, placebo‐controlled, randomized trial (Probiotics in Pregnancy Study). American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2014;99(6):1432‐9. - PubMed
Lindsay 2015 {published data only}
    1. Lindsay KL, Brennan L, Kennelly MA, Maguire OC, Smith T, Curran S, et al. Impact of probiotics in women with gestational diabetes mellitus on metabolic health: a randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2015;212:496.e1‐11. - PubMed
Louie 2013 {published data only}
    1. Louie JCY, Markovic TP, Ross GP, Foote D, Brand‐Miller JC. Timing of peak blood glucose after breakfast meals of different glycemic index in women with gestational diabetes. Nutrients 2013;5(1):1‐9. - PMC - PubMed
Ma 2011 {published data only}
    1. Ma WJ, Qi BH, Zhang YJ, Huang ZH, Xiao BX, Li YH, et al. Application of different nutrition therapies in pregnancy with abnormal glucose metabolism. Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese Journal of Preventive Medicine] 2011;45(5):426‐9. - PubMed
Nolan 1984 {published data only}
    1. Nolan CJ. Improved glucose tolerance in gestational diabetic women on a low fat, high unrefined carbohydrate diet. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1984;24(3):174‐7. - PubMed
Perichart‐Perara 2012 {published data only}
    1. Perichart‐Perera O, Balas‐Nakash M, Rodríguez‐Cano A, Legorreta‐Legorreta J, Parra‐Covarrubias A, Vadillo‐Ortega F. Low glycemic index carbohydrates versus all types of carbohydrates for treating diabetes in pregnancy: a randomized clinical trial to evaluate the effect of glycemic control. International Journal of Endocrinology 2012;2012:296017. [DOI: 10.1155/2012/296017] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Reader 2006 {published data only}
    1. Reader D, Splett P, Gunderson EP, for the Diabetes Care and Education Dietetic Practice Group. Impact of gestational diabetes mellitus nutrition practice guidelines implemented by registered dietitians on pregnancy outcomes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2006;106(9):1426‐33. - PubMed
Samimi 2015 {published data only}
    1. Samimi M, Jamilian M, Asemi Z, Esmaillzadeh A. Effects of omega‐3 fatty acid supplementation on insulin metabolism and lipid profiles in gestational diabetes: Randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Clinical Nutrition 2015;34(3):385‐93. - PubMed
Thangaratinam 2014 {published data only}
    1. NCT02218931. Effect of simple, targeted diet in pregnant women with metabolic risk factors on pre‐eclampsia (ESTEEM): a randomised trial. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02218931 Date first received: 11 July 2014.
Yu 2013 {published data only}
    1. Yu XY, Zhang H. Effects of a nutritional liquid supplement designed for diabetes mellitus on postprandial glucose and pregnancy outcomes in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 2013;93(43):3450‐3. - PubMed
Yuan 2015 {published data only}
    1. Yuan LJ, Qin Y, Wang L, Zeng Y, Chang H, Wang J, et al. Capsaicin‐containing chili improved postprandial hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and fasting lipid disorders in women with gestational diabetes mellitus and lowered the incidence of large‐for‐gestational‐age newborns. Clinical Nutrition 2016;35(2):388‐93. - PubMed

Additional references

ACOG 2005
    1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). ACOG Committee Opinion number 315, September 2005. Obesity in pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;106(3):671‐5. - PubMed
ACOG 2013
    1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) Committee on Practice Bulletins ‐ Obstetrics. Practice Bulletin No. 137: Gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2013;122(2 Pt 1):406‐16. - PubMed
Alwan 2009
    1. Alwan N, Tuffnell DJ, West J. Treatments for gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003395.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Anderberg 2010
    1. Anderberg E, Kallen K, Berntorp K. The impact of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcome comparing different cut‐off criteria for abnormal glucose tolerance. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2010;89(12):1532‐7. - PubMed
Atkinson 2008
    1. Atkinson FS, Foster‐Powell K, Brand‐Miller JC. International tables of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2008. Diabetes Care 2008;31(12):2281‐3. - PMC - PubMed
Baker 1994
    1. Barker D. Mothers, Babies and Diseases in Later Life. London: BMJ Publishing Group, 1994.
Balsells 2015
    1. Balsells M, García‐Patterson A, Solà I, Roqué M, Gich I, Corcoy R. Glibenclamide, metformin, and insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. BMJ 2015;350:h102. - PMC - PubMed
Bellamy 2009
    1. Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, Williams D. Type 2 diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Lancet 2009;373(9677):1173‐9. - PubMed
Bottalico 2007
    1. Bottalico JN. Recurrent gestational diabetes: risk factors, diagnosis, management, and implications. Seminars in Perinatology 2007;31(3):176‐84. - PubMed
Brown 2015
    1. Brown J, Alwan NA, West J, Brown S, McKinlay CJD, et al. Lifestyle interventions for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015, Issue 11. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD011970] - DOI
Brown 2016
    1. Brown J, Crawford TJ, Alsweiler J, Crowther CA. Dietary supplementation with myo‐inositol in women during pregnancy for treating gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 9. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD012048.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Chasan‐Taber 2008
    1. Chasan‐Taber L, Schmidt MD, Pekow P, Sternfeld B, Manson JE, Solomon CG. Physical activity and gestational diabetes mellitus among Hispanic women. Journal of Women's Health 2008;17(6):999‐1008. - PubMed
Cheung 2009
    1. Cheung NW. The management of gestational diabetes. Journal of Vascular Health and Risk Management 2009;5(1):153‐64. - PMC - PubMed
Clapp 2002
    1. Clapp JF. Maternal carbohydrate intake and pregnancy outcome. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2002;61(1):45‐50. - PubMed
Clapp 2006
    1. Clapp JF. Effects of diet and exercise on insulin resistance during pregnancy. Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders 2006;4(2):84‐90. - PubMed
Colagiuri 2009
    1. Colagiuri R, Girgis S, Eigenmann C, Gomez M, Griffiths R. National Evidence Based Guideline for Patient Education in Type 2 Diabetes. Canberra: Diabetes Australia and the NHMRC, 2009.
Crowther 2005
    1. Crowther CA, Hiller JE, Moss JR, McPhee AJ, Jeffries WS, Robinson JS, et al. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine 2005;352(24):2477‐86. - PubMed
Cypryk 2008
    1. Cypryk K, Szymczak W, Czupryniak L, Sobczak M, Lewinski A. Gestational diabetes mellitus ‐ an analysis of risk factors. Endokrynologia Polska (Warszawa) 2008;59(5):393‐7. - PubMed
Dabelea 2005
    1. Dabelea D, Snell‐Bergeon JK, Hartsfield CL, Bischoff KJ, Hamman RF, McDuffie RS, et al. Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) over time and by birth cohort: Kaiser Permanente of Colorado GDM Screening Program. Diabetes Care 2005;28(3):579‐84. - PubMed
De Veciana 1995
    1. Veciana M, Major CA, Morgan MA, Asrat T, Toohey JS, Lien JM, et al. Postprandial versus preprandial blood glucose monitoring in women with gestational diabetes mellitus requiring insulin therapy. New England Journal of Medicine 1995;333(19):1237‐41. - PubMed
Devlieger 2008
    1. Devlieger R, Casteels K, Assche FA. Reduced adaptation of the pancreatic B cells during pregnancy is the major causal factor for gestational diabetes: current knowledge and metabolic effects on the offspring. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2008;87(12):1266‐70. - PubMed
Dodd 2007
    1. Dodd JM, Crowther CA, Antoniou G, Baghurst P, Robinson JS. Screening for gestational diabetes: the effect of varying blood glucose definitions in the prediction of adverse maternal and infant health outcomes. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2007;47(4):307‐12. - PubMed
Dornhorst 2002
    1. Dornhorst A, Frost G. The principles of dietary management of gestational diabetes: reflection on current evidence. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 2002;15(2):145‐56. - PubMed
Esakoff 2009
    1. Esakoff TF, Cheng YW, Sparks TN, Caughey AB. The association between birthweight 4000 g or greater and perinatal outcomes in patients with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2009;200(6):672.e1‐4. - PubMed
Falavigna 2012
    1. Falavigna M, Schmidt MI, Trujillo J, Alves LF, Wendland ER, Torloni MR, et.al. Effectiveness of gestational diabetes treatment: a systematic review with quality of evidence assessment. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2012;98(3):396‐405. - PubMed
Guerrero‐Romero 2010
    1. Guerrero‐Romero F, Aradillas‐García C, Simental‐Mendia LE, Monreal‐Escalante E, Cruz Mendoza E, Rodríguez‐Moran M. Birth weight, family history of diabetes, and metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics 2010;156(5):719‐23. - PubMed
Harder 2009
    1. Harder T, Roepke K, Diller N, Stechling Y, Dudenhausen JW, Plagemann A. Birth weight, early weight gain, and subsequent risk of type 1 diabetes: systematic review and meta‐analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology 2009;169(12):1428‐36. - PubMed
Hedderson 2010
    1. Hedderson MM, Gunderson EP, Ferrara A. Gestational weight gain and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2010;115(3):597‐604. - PMC - PubMed
Henriksen 2008
    1. Henriksen T. The macrosomic fetus: a challenge in current obstetrics. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 2008;87(2):134‐45. - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Hoffman 1998
    1. Hoffman L, Nolan C, Wilson JD, Oats JJ, Simmons D. Gestational diabetes mellitus‐‐management guidelines. The Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. Medical Journal of Australia 1998;169(2):93‐7. - PubMed
Horvath 2010
    1. Horvath K, Koch K, Jeitler K, Matyas E, Bender R, Bastian H, et. al. Effects of treatment in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta‐analysis. BMJ 2010;340:c1395. - PMC - PubMed
IOM 2009
    1. Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL, Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2009. - PubMed
Jastrow 2010
    1. Jastrow N, Roberge S, Gauthier RJ, Laroche L, Duperron L, Brassard N, et al. Effect of birth weight on adverse obstetric outcomes in vaginal birth after cesarean delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2010;115(2 Pt 1):338‐43. - PubMed
Jenkins 1981
    1. Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Taylor RH, Barker H, Fielden H, Baldwin JM, et al. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1981;34(3):362‐6. - PubMed
Ju 2008
    1. Ju H, Rumbold AR, Willson KJ, Crowther CA. Borderline gestational diabetes mellitus and pregnancy outcomes. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2008;8:31. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2002
    1. Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1862‐8. - PubMed
Kim 2010a
    1. Kim C. Gestational diabetes: risks, management, and treatment options. International Journal of Women's Health 2010;7(2):339‐51. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2010b
    1. Kim SY, England L, Wilson HG, Bish C, Satten GA, Dietz P. Percentage of gestational diabetes mellitus attributable to overweight and obesity. American Journal of Public Health 2010;100(6):1047‐52. - PMC - PubMed
Landon 2009
    1. Landon MB, Spong CY, Thom E, Carpenter MW, Ramin SM, Casey B, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;361(14):1339‐48. - PMC - PubMed
Langer 2005
    1. Langer O, Yogev Y, Most O, Xenakis EM. Gestational diabetes: the consequences of not treating. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;192(4):989‐97. - PubMed
Louie 2010
    1. Louie JC, Brand‐Miller JC, Markovic TP, Ross GP, Moses RG. Glycemic index and pregnancy: a systematic literature review. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 2010;2010:282464. - PMC - PubMed
Major 1998
    1. Major CA, Henry MJ, Veciana M, Morgan MA. The effects of carbohydrate restriction in patients with diet‐controlled gestational diabetes. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1998;91(4):600‐4. - PubMed
Metzger 1998
    1. Metzger BE, Coustan DR. Summary and recommendations of the Fourth International Workshop‐Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. The Organizing Committee. Diabetes Care 1998;21(Suppl 2):B161‐7. - PubMed
Metzger 2007
    1. Metzger BE, Buchanan TA, Coustan DR, Leiva A, Dunger DB, Hadden DR. Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop‐Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007;30(Suppl 2):S251‐60. - PubMed
Metzger 2008
    1. HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group, Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, Trimble ER, Chaovarindr U, Coustan DR, et al. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine 2008;358(19):1991‐2002. - PubMed
Ministry of Health 2014
    1. Ministry of Health. Screening, Diagnosis and Management of Gestational Diabetes in New Zealand: A clinical practice guideline. Ministry of Health. Wellington, 2014.
Morisset 2010
    1. Morisset AS, St‐Yves A, Veillette J, Weisnagel SJ, Tchernof A, Robitaille J. Prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus: a review of studies on weight management. Diabetes Metabolism Research and Reviews 2010;26(1):17‐25. - PubMed
Morrison 2008
    1. Morrison JA, Friedman LA, Wang P, Glueck CJ. Metabolic syndrome in childhood predicts adult metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus 25 to 30 years later. Journal of Pediatrics 2008;152(2):201‐6. - PubMed
Mulla 2010
    1. Mulla WR, Henry TQ, Homko CJ. Gestational diabetes screening after HAPO: has anything changed?. Current Diabetes Reports 2010;10(3):224‐8. - PubMed
NICE 2015
    1. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Diabetes in Pregnancy: Management of Diabetes and its Complications from Pre‐conception to the Postnatal Period. NICE clinical guideline [NG3]. London: NICE, 2015.
Petitt 1985
    1. Petitt DJ, Bennett PH, Knowler WC, Baird HR, Aleck KA. Gestational diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance during pregnancy. Long‐term effects on obesity and glucose tolerance in the offspring. Diabetes 1985;34(Suppl 2):119‐22. - PubMed
Petry 2010
    1. Petry CJ. Gestational diabetes: risk factors and recent advances in its genetics and treatment. British Journal of Nutrition 2010;104(6):775‐87. - PubMed
Pettitt 1993
    1. Pettitt DJ, Nelson RG, Saad MF, Bennett PH, Knowler WC. Diabetes and obesity in the offspring of Pima Indian women with diabetes during pregnancy. Diabetes Care 1993;16(1):310‐4. - PubMed
Reader 2007
    1. Reader DM. Medical nutrition therapy and lifestyle interventions. Diabetes Care 2007;30(Suppl 2):S188‐93. - PubMed
Reece 2009
    1. Reece EA, Leguizamon G, Wiznitzer A. Gestational diabetes: the need for a common ground. Lancet 2009;373(9677):1789‐97. - PubMed
RevMan 2014 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
Rizzo 1997
    1. Rizzo TA, Metzger BE, Dooley SL, Cho NH. Early malnutrition and child neurobehavioral development: insights from the study of children of diabetic mothers. Child Development 1997;68(1):26‐38. - PubMed
Romon 2001
    1. Romon M, Nuttens MC, Vambergue A, Verier‐Mine O, Biausque S, Lemaire C, et al. Higher carbohydrate intake is associated with decreased incidence of newborn macrosomia in women with gestational diabetes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2001;101(8):897‐902. - PubMed
Silva 2010
    1. Silva JC, Pacheco C, Bizato J, Souza BV, Ribeiro TE, Bertini AM. Metformin compared with glyburide for the management of gestational diabetes. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2010;111(1):37‐40. - PubMed
Simmons 2004
    1. Simmons D, Walters BN, Rowan JA, McIntyre HD. Metformin therapy and diabetes in pregnancy. Medical Journal of Australia 2004;180(9):462‐4. - PubMed
Soler 1978
    1. Soler NG, Soler SM, Malins JM. Neonatal morbidity among infants of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Care 1978;1(6):340‐50. - PubMed
Solomon 1997
    1. Solomon CG, Willett WC, Carey VJ, Rich‐Edwards J, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, et al. A prospective study of pregravid determinants of gestational diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1997;278(13):1078‐83. - PubMed
Thomas 2010
    1. Thomas DE, Elliott EJ. The use of low‐glycaemic index diets in diabetes control. British Journal of Nutrition 2010;104(6):797‐802. - PubMed
Tieu 2008
    1. Tieu J, Crowther CA, Middleton P. Dietary advice in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006674.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Viana 2014
    1. Viana L, Gross J, Azevedo M. Dietary intervention in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized clinical trials on maternal and newborn outcomes. Diabetes Care 2014;37:3345‐55. [DOI: 10.2337/dc14-1530] - DOI - PubMed
Whincup 2008
    1. Whincup PH, Kaye SJ, Owen CG, Huxley R, Cook DG, Anazawa S, et al. Birth weight and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. JAMA 2008;300(24):2886‐97. - PubMed
WHO 2013
    1. World Health Organization. Diagnostic Criteria and Classification of Hyperglycaemia First Detected in Pregnancy. WHO/NMH/MND/13.2. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2013. - PubMed
Zhang 2006
    1. Zhang C, Solomon CG, Manson JE, Hu FB. A prospective study of pregravid physical activity and sedentary behaviors in relation to the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166(5):543‐8. - PubMed

References to other published versions of this review

Han 2011
    1. Han S, Crowther CA, Middleton P. Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 8. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009275] - DOI - PubMed
Han 2013
    1. Han S, Crowther CA, Middleton P, Heatley E. Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009275.pub2] - DOI - PubMed

MeSH terms

LinkOut - more resources