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. 2015 Jul 14:6:7615.
doi: 10.1038/ncomms8615.

Spatial and temporal changes in cumulative human impacts on the world's ocean

Benjamin S Halpern  1   2   3 , Melanie Frazier  3 , John Potapenko  4 , Kenneth S Casey  5 , Kellee Koenig  6 , Catherine Longo  3 , Julia Stewart Lowndes  3 , R Cotton Rockwood  7 , Elizabeth R Selig  6 , Kimberly A Selkoe  3   8 , Shaun Walbridge  9
Affiliations

Spatial and temporal changes in cumulative human impacts on the world's ocean

Benjamin S Halpern et al. Nat Commun. .

Abstract

Human pressures on the ocean are thought to be increasing globally, yet we know little about their patterns of cumulative change, which pressures are most responsible for change, and which places are experiencing the greatest increases. Managers and policymakers require such information to make strategic decisions and monitor progress towards management objectives. Here we calculate and map recent change over 5 years in cumulative impacts to marine ecosystems globally from fishing, climate change, and ocean- and land-based stressors. Nearly 66% of the ocean and 77% of national jurisdictions show increased human impact, driven mostly by climate change pressures. Five percent of the ocean is heavily impacted with increasing pressures, requiring management attention. Ten percent has very low impact with decreasing pressures. Our results provide large-scale guidance about where to prioritize management efforts and affirm the importance of addressing climate change to maintain and improve the condition of marine ecosystems.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1. Change in cumulative human impact to marine ecosystems.
(a) Absolute difference between current (as of 2013) and earlier (as of 2008) per-pixel cumulative impact scores based on 12 anthropogenic stressors that could be compared across time (max cumulative impact score for both periods=11.1). Positive scores represent an increase in cumulative impact. (b) Extreme combinations of cumulative impact and impact trend include areas with combinations of the highest (top quartile) and lowest (bottom quartile) impact and increasing (top quartile) and decreasing (bottom quartile) impact. In both panels, areas of permanent sea ice are shaded white and the area within maximum sea ice extent is shaded to indicate where scores are less certain because change in sea ice extent could not be included (see Supplementary Methods).
Figure 2
Figure 2. Current cumulative impact versus change in impact.
The relationship between current cumulative impact (as of 2013) and 5-year change in impact from 5 years before for each country's EEZ (200 nm) is shown based on the 12 common stressors. Bubbles are scaled to the area (ln) of each country's EEZ and colour-coded by the change in the log of coastal population (25 miles inland) per year from 2008 to 2013; a subset of countries is labelled. Grey bubbles are nearly uninhabited. Horizontal dashed red line is the global median cumulative impact score in 2013; vertical line is no change over time. See Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 for data for all countries.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Absolute difference in 2013 versus 2008 per-pixel stressor intensities for four representative stressors.
(a) Sea surface temperature anomalies, (b) nutrient input, (c) demersal destructive fishing and (d) pelagic high bycatch fishing. Positive scores represent an increase in stressor intensity. Note that colour scales differ among panels and are nonlinear.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Cumulative human impact to marine ecosystems as of 2013.
Impact scores are based on all 19 anthropogenic stressors. Colours are assigned to 10-quantiles in the data, except the highest scores which are the top 5% of scores. Areas of permanent sea ice are shaded white and the area within maximum sea ice extent is masked to indicate where scores are less certain because change in sea ice extent could not be included (see Supplementary Methods).
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