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. 2015 Jan 12:5:1529.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529. eCollection 2014.

Self-soothing behaviors with particular reference to oxytocin release induced by non-noxious sensory stimulation

Kerstin Uvnäs-Moberg  1 , Linda Handlin  2 , Maria Petersson  3
Affiliations

Self-soothing behaviors with particular reference to oxytocin release induced by non-noxious sensory stimulation

Kerstin Uvnäs-Moberg et al. Front Psychol. .

Abstract

Oxytocin, a hypothalamic nonapeptide, is linked to increased levels of social interaction, well-being and anti-stress effects. The effects of oxytocin that is released by sensory stimulation during different kinds of interactive behaviors are often underestimated or even forgotten. In fact, many of the positive effects caused during interaction, such a wellbeing, stress reduction and even health promotion, are indeed linked to oxytocin released in response to activation of various types of sensory nerves. Oxytocin is released in response to activation of sensory nerves during labor, breastfeeding and sexual activity. In addition oxytocin is released in response to low intensity stimulation of the skin, e.g., in response to touch, stroking, warm temperature, etc. Consequently oxytocin is not only released during interaction between mothers and infants, but also during positive interaction between adults or between humans and animals. Finally oxytocin is also released in response to suckling and food intake. Oxytocin released in the brain in response to sensory stimulation as a consequence of these types of interactive behaviors, contributes to every day wellbeing and ability to handle stress. Food intake or sex may be used or even abused to achieve oxytocin-linked wellbeing and stress relief to compensate for lack of good relationships or when the levels of anxiety are high. The present review article will summarize the role played by oxytocin released by sensory (in particular somatosensory) stimulation, during various kinds of interactive behaviors. Also the fact that the anti-stress effects of oxytocin are particularly strong when oxytocin is released in response to "low intensity" stimulation of the skin will be highlighted.

Keywords: afferent nerves; anti-stress effects; non-noxious sensory stimulation; oxytocin.

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Figures

FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1
Schematic illustration of how oxytocinergic neurons within the PVN project to some important regulatory areas in the CNS. HC, hippocampus; HT, hypothalamus; PVN, paraventricular nucleus; NA, nucleus accumbens; AM, amygdala; PAG, periaqueductal gray; RN, raphe nuclei; LC, locus coeruleus; NTS, nucleus tractus solitarius; DMX, dorsal motor nucleus; FC, frontal cortex; P, pituitary.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 2
Oxytocin plasma levels in male rats (n = 8) before and after 10 min of stroking (means ± SD). Data from Stock and Uvnäs-Moberg (1988).
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 3
Schematic illustration showing how afferent nerves from different parts of the body stimulate oxytocin release.
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 4
Schematic illustration of different effects of oxytocin released from parvocellular neurons in the brainstem. 1. Noxious stimulation of afferent sensory nerves results in release of CRF and VP from the PVN. 2. Non-noxious stimulation of afferent sensory nerves results in release of oxytocin from the PVN. 3. Noxious and non-noxious stimulation of afferent sensory nerves result in activation of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord (autonomic centra, AC). 4. Oxytocin released from oxytocinergic neurons originating from the PVN and projecting to areas in the brainstem and spinal cord involved in the control of autonomic nervous tone (e.g., the DMX) influences the function of autonomic nervous tone. In addition it reinforces and facilitates effects caused by shorter brain stem projections. In this way hypothalamic reflexes controls and modulates the activity of the shorter brainstem reflexes. 5. Oxytocin released from oxytocinergic neurons originating from the PVN and projecting to the NTS facilitates the function of afferent neurons involved in the release of oxytocin, thereby facilitating oxytocin release. It also activates alpha 2-adrenoceptors on noradrenergic fibers innervating CRF neurons in the PVN, thereby decreasing stress reactivity. In this way non-noxious somatosensory stimulation promotes oxytocin release and oxytocin mediated effects, but counteracts CRF and VP linked effects.
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