Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Structure and Nature of the Broader Autism Phenotype in a Non-clinical Sample

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The broader autism phenotype (BAP) is a subclinical behavioral phenotype that is qualitatively similar to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Research on the BAP has used different conceptualizations of this construct. To more closely approximate the nature of the BAP, the current study utilized traditional construct validation methods to identify the BAP structure and characterize its nomological net in undergraduates. A conjoint exploratory factor analysis of the scales from three self-report measures of the construct was used to derive three robust BAP dimensions reflecting pragmatic language difficulties, aloofness, and rigidity. These dimensions were then correlated with theoretically-relevant personality, psychopathology, and interest variables in order to evaluate the criterion validity of the BAP. Correlations were generally consistent with our predictions and showed strongest relations between BAP dimensions and poor communication skills, impaired social functioning, and behavioral and cognitive rigidity. This research represents a first step in the identification and utilization of a common conceptualization of the BAP.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In order to make the correlations more interpretable, Aloofness was re-coded by multiplying by −1

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition, text revision. Washington: American Psychiatric Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J. (2005). Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Personality and Individual Differences, 38(2), 451–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Axelrod, S. R., Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C., & McGlashan, T. H. (2001). Schizotypal personality questionnaire-brief: factor structure and convergent validity in inpatient adolescents. Journal of Personality Disorders, 15(2), 168–179. doi:10.1521/pedi.15.2.168.19219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A., Le Couteur, A., Gottesman, I., Bolton, P., Simonoff, E., Yuzda, E., et al. (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25(01), 63–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A., Palferman, S., Heavey, L., & Le Couteur, A. (1998). Autism: the phenotype in relatives. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(5), 369–392.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., Wheelwright, S., Short, L., Mead, G., Smith, A., et al. (1998). Autism occurs more often in families of physicists, engineers, and mathematicians. Autism, 2, 296–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient (EQ). An investigation of adults with Asperger Syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger Syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 5–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N., & Kasari, C. (2000). Loneliness and friendship in high-functioning children with autism. Child Development, 71(2), 447–456.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., Maybery, M., Maley, A., Wong, D., Hill, W., & Hallmayer, J. (2004). Using self-report to identify the broad phenotype in parents of children with autistic spectrum disorders: a study using the Autism-Spectrum Quotient. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(8), 1431–1436.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, P., Macdonald, H., Pickles, A., Rios, P., Goode, S., Crowson, M., et al. (1994). A case control family history study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(5), 877–900.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, P. F., Pickles, A., Murphy, M., & Rutter, M. (1998). Autism, affective and other psychiatric disorders: patterns of familial aggregation. Psychological Medicine, 28, 385–395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connor, K. M., Davidson, J. R. T., Churchill, L. E., Sherwood, A., Weisler, R. H., & Foa, E. (2000). Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): new self-rating scale. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 176(4), 379–386. doi:10.1192/bjp.176.4.379.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N. (2002). The social responsiveness scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2003). Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 524–530.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., & Todd, R. D. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of subthreshold autistic traits in the general population. Biological Psychiatry, 57(6), 655–660.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., Davis, S. A., Todd, R. D., Schindler, M. K., Gross, M. M., Brophy, S. L., et al. (2003). Validation of a brief quantitative measure of autistic traits: comparison of the social responsiveness scale with the autism diagnostic interview-revised. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(4), 427–433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., Gruber, C. P., Davis, S., Hayes, S., Passanante, N., & Przybeck, T. (2004). The factor structure of autistic traits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(4), 719–726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Pauw, S. S. W., Mervielde, I., Van Leeuwen, K. G., & De Clercq, B. J. (2010). How temperament and personality contribute to the maladjustment of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(2), 196–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., Leiberg, S., Langner, R., Kichic, R., Hajcak, G., et al. (2002). The obsessive-compulsive inventory: development and validation of a short version. Psychological Assessment, 14(4), 485–496.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folstein, S., & Rutter, M. (1977). Infantile autism: a genetic study of 21 twin pairs. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 18(4), 297–321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Georgiades, S., Szatmari, P., Zwaigenbaum, L., Duku, E., Bryson, S., Roberts, W., et al. (2007). Structure of the autism symptom phenotype: a proposed multidimensional model. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 188–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, L. R. (2010). Personality, demographics, and self-reported behavioral acts: the development of avocational interest scales from estimates of the amount of time spent in interest-related activities. In C. R. Agnew, D. E. Carlston, W. G. Graziano, & J. R. Kelly (Eds.), Then a miracle occurs: Focusing on behavior in social psychological theory and research (pp. 205–226). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurtman, M. B., & Balakrishnan, J. D. (1998). Circular measurement redux: the analysis and interpretation of interpersonal circle profiles. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5, 344–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Cath, D. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2008). Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): a study in Dutch population and patient groups. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(8), 1555–1566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoekstra, R. A., Bartels, M., Verweij, C. J. H., & Boomsma, D. I. (2007). Heritability of autistic traits in the general population. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161(4), 372–377.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hollander, E., King, A., Delaney, K., Smith, C. J., & Silverman, J. M. (2003). Obsessive-compulsive behaviors in parents of multiplex autism families. Psychiatry Research, 117, 11–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopwood, C. J., Ansell, E. B., Pincus, A. L., Wright, A. G. C., Lukowitsky, M. R., & Roche, M. J. (2011). The circumplex structure of interpersonal sensitivities. Journal of Personality. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00696.x/pdf.

  • Hopwood, C. J., Pincus, A. L., DeMoor, R. M., & Koonce, E. A. (2008). Psychometric characteristics of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems–Short Circumplex (IIP–SC) with college students. Journal of Personality Assessment, 90(6), 615–618.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurley, R. S. E., Losh, M., Parlier, M., Reznick, J. S., & Piven, J. (2007). The broad autism phenotype questionnaire. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1679–1690.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, R. M., Mitchell, J. T., Kimbrel, N. A., Kwapil, T. K., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (2007). Examination of the reliability and factor structure of the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a non-clinical sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(7), 1938–1949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, R. M., Nelson-Gray, R. O., Mitchell, J. T., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). The relationship of Asperger’s characteristics and schizotypal personality traits in a non-clinical adult sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1711–1720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyler, S. E. (1996). PDQ-4: Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-DSM-IV version. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingersoll, B., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2011). The relationship between the broader autism phenotype, child severity, and stress and depression in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 337–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingersoll, B., Hopwood, C. J., Wainer, A., & Donnellan, M. B. (2011). A comparison of three self-report measures of the broader autism phenotype in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.

  • Jacob, S., Landeros-Weisenberger, & Leckman, J. F. (2009). Autism spectrum and obsessive-compulsive disorders: OC behaviors, phenotypes and genetics. Autism Research, 2, 293–311.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jobe, L. E., & Williams White, S. (2007). Loneliness, social relationships, and a broader autism phenotype in college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1479–1489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The big five inventory: Versions 44 and 54. Berkeley: University of California-Institute of Personality and Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaing, M. (2010). Schizotypy and language: a review. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 23, 193–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, K. D., & Sadler, P. (2007). Self-efficacy, values, and complementarity in dyadic interactions: integrating interpersonal and social-cognitive theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 94–109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loevinger, J. (1957). Objective tests as instruments of psychological theory. Psychological Reports, 3, 635–694.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morey, L. C. (1991). Personality assessment inventory. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M., Bolton, P. F., Pickles, A., Fombonne, E., Piven, J., & Rutter, M. (2000). Personality traits of the relatives of autistic probands. Psychological Medicine, 30(6), 1411–1424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Committee on educational interventions for children with autism. In C. Lord & J. McGee (Eds.), Division of behavioral and social sciences and education. Washington: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., & Palmer, P. (1999). Psychiatric disorder and the broad autism phenotype: evidence from a family study of multiple-incidence autism families. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 557–563.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Palmer, P., Jacobi, D., Childress, D., & Arndt, S. (1997). Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(2), 185–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piven, J., Palmer, P., Landa, R., Santangelo, S., Jacobi, D., & Childress, D. (1997). Personality and language characteristics in parents from multiple-incidence autism families. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74(4), 398–411.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollmann, M. M. H., Finkenauer, C., & Begeer, S. (2010). Mediators of the link between autistic traits and relationship satisfaction in a non-clinical sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 470–478.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, J., Nestadt, G., Bienvenu, O. J., Costa, P. T., Riddle, M. A., Liang, K., et al. (2000). Personality disorders and normal personality dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 457–462. doi:10.1192/bjp.177.5.45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soldz, S., Budman, S., Demby, A., & Merry, J. (1995). A short form of the inventory of interpersonal problems circumplex scales. Assessment, 2(1), 53–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, M. E., & Austin, E. J. (2009). The structure of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ): evidence from a student sample in Scotland. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(3), 224–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wakabayashi, A., Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2006). Are autistic traits an independent personality dimension? A study of the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ) and the NEO-PI-R. Personality and Individual Differences, 41(5), 873–883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheelwright, S., Baron-Cohen, S., Goldenfeld, N., Delaney, J., Fine, D., Smith, R., et al. (2006). Predicting autism spectrum quotient (AQ) from the systemizing quotient-revised (SQ-R) and empathy quotient (EQ). Brain Research, 1079(1), 47–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, L., & Gould, J. (1979). Severe impairments of social interaction and associated abnormalities in children: epidemiology and classification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9(1), 11–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff, S., Narayan, S., & Moyes, B. (1988). Personality characteristics of parents of autistic children: a controlled study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29(2), 143–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA

    Allison L. Wainer, Brooke R. Ingersoll & Christopher J. Hopwood

Authors
  1. Allison L. Wainer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brooke R. Ingersoll
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Christopher J. Hopwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Allison L. Wainer.

Appendix

Appendix

Items with Strong and Unique Loadings on Factors Extracted from Independent Exploratory Factor Analyses

Autism Spectrum Quotient

Social Skills (11, 13, 15, 17, 22, 26, 38, 44, 47); Communication (7, 18, 19, 20, 21, 35, 39, 41, 45); Memory (29,49); Imagination (3, 5, 8, 12, 14, 16, 27, 36, 40, 50); Rigidity (2, 25, 43, 46)

Broad Autism Phenotype Questionnaire

Social Interest (1, 9, 12, 16, 23, 25, 28, 31, 34, 36); Rigidity (3, 6, 8, 13, 15, 22, 24, 20, 33, 35); Pragmatic Language (2, 4, 10, 14, 17, 20, 29, 32)

Social Responsiveness Scale-Adult

Social Eccentricity (2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 14, 19, 20, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65); Interpersonal Awareness (7, 15, 17, 22, 26, 32, 38, 40, 48, 52, 55); Social Avoidance (1, 3, 6, 11, 18, 23, 27, 43)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Wainer, A.L., Ingersoll, B.R. & Hopwood, C.J. The Structure and Nature of the Broader Autism Phenotype in a Non-clinical Sample. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 33, 459–469 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9259-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9259-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation