Menschenwürdige Pflegearbeit nur über die Grenzen hinweg

Cleovi C. Mosuela²

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Zusammenfassung

In diesem Kapitel wird erörtert, wie die Pflegearbeit am Beispiel der intensiven Produktion von Pflegekompetenzen auf den Philippinen zu einem Ort der Ausbeutung und des Kampfes wird. Schlechte Arbeitsbedingungen und illegale Beschäftigungsverhältnisse tragen dazu bei, die Praxis des philippinischen Staates zu legitimieren, die Mobilität von Pflegekräften zu erleichtern. Es wurden Diskurse über menschenwürdige Arbeit, Rückkehrmigration und Zirkulation vorgeschlagen, die sich jedoch bewusst auf die Nutzung des Humankapitals konzentrieren, von dem angenommen wird, dass es aus der internationalen Migration von Gesundheitspersonal gewonnen wird. Das Kapitel beleuchtet auch die Strategien von Krankenpflegeverbänden und zivilgesellschaftlichen Organisationen im Kampf gegen die neoliberale Umgestaltung der Arbeit, was unsere Aufmerksamkeit auf die zentrale Bedeutung der Pflege für das menschliche Leben und die Wahrung der Interessen der Arbeit gegenüber dem Kapital lenkt.

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Notes

1.
Robert Mendoza and Benjamin Santos, “Health Workers score President Duterte as “Heartless”,” news release, 2018, https://allianceofhealthworkers.files.wordpress.com/2018/02/pr-february-14.pdf.
2.
Ibid.
3.
Erlinda Castro-Palaganas et al., “An examination of the causes, consequences, and policy responses to the migration of highly trained health personnel from the Philippines: the high cost of living/leaving – a mixed method study,” Human Resources for Health 15, no. 25 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-017-0198-z.
4.
Roland M. Dimaya et al., “Managing health worker migration: a qualitative study of the Philippine response to nurse brain drain,” Human Resources for Health 10, no. 47 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-10-47.
5.
Julia Shaw, “Homines Curans and the Social Work Imaginary: Post-Liberalism and the Ethics of Care,” The British Journal of Social Wor 48, no. 4 (2018): 192, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcy046.
6.
See Shaw, “Homines Curans and the Social Work Imaginary: Post-Liberalism and the Ethics of Care.”
7.
Ibid.
8.
Ibid.
9.
Ibid.
10.
Joan Tronto, Moral Boundaries: Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (London: Routledge, 1993).
11.
Ibid.
12.
Philippine Nurses Association (PNA) interview 28 October 2014.
13.
Ibid.; Robyn Rodriguez, Migrants for Export: How the Philippine State Brokers Labor to the World (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).
14.
Anna Romina Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers (New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London: Rutgers University Press, 2010).
15.
See Mai Taha and Sara Salem, “Social reproduction and empire in an Egyptian century,” Radical Philosophy 2, no. 4 (2019), https://www.radicalphilosophy.com/article/social-reproduction-and-empire-in-an-egyptian-century.
16.
Anna Romina Guevarra, “Governing migrant workers through empowerment and sustaining a culture of labor migration: the case of the Philippines,” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, (2003). http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/0/7/2/2/p107225_index.html.;
Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers.
17.
Rodriguez, Migrants for Export: How the Philippine State Brokers Labor to the World.
18.
Guevarra, “Governing migrant workers through empowerment and sustaining a culture of labor migration: the case of the Philippines.”;
Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers;
Rodriguez, Migrants for Export: How the Philippine State Brokers Labor to the World.
19.
Barbara L. Brush, “The Rockefeller Agenda for American/Philippines Nursing Relations,” Western Journal of Nursing Research 17, no. 5 (1995), https://doi.org/10.1177/019394599501700506.
20.
Jason R. Weidner, “Governmentality, Capitalism, and Subjectivity,” Global Society 23, no. 4 (2009): 44, https://doi.org/10.1080/13600820903198719.
21.
Weidner, “Governmentality, Capitalism, and Subjectivity,” 40.
22.
Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2003).
23.
Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers.
24.
Rodriguez, Migrants for Export: How the Philippine State Brokers Labor to the World.
25.
Guevarra, “Governing migrant workers through empowerment and sustaining a culture of labor migration: the case of the Philippines.”
26.
James Buchan, Tina Parkin, and Julie Sochalski, International nurse mobility: trends and policy implications, (World Health Organization, 2003).
27.
“Southeast Asia,” (June 2002: Migration News, 11 November 2016). https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=2650_0_3_0.
28.
Rep. Samaco-Paquiz interview 26 January 2015.
Ralph Recto, Senate Bill No. 2988, (10 October 2011).
Margaret Harris Cheng, “The Philippines’ health worker exodus,” The Lancet 373 (2009), https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60022-2.
29.
Dimaya et al., “Managing health worker migration: a qualitative study of the Philippine response to nurse brain drain.”; Yasmin Y. Ortiga, “Professional problems: The burden of producing the ‘Global’ Filipino nurse,” Social Science and Medicine 115 (2014), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.06.012.
30.
Recto, Short Senate Bill No. 2988.
31.
Cecilia C. Pring and Irene Roco, “The Volunteer Phenomenon of Nurses in the Philippines,” Asian Journal of Health 2 (2012), https://doi.org/10.7828/ajoh.v2i1.120.
32.
Ortiga, “Professional problems: The burden of producing the ‘Global’ Filipino nurse.”
33.
Ibid.
34.
PNA interview 28 October 2014.
35.
Ibid., my emphasis.
36.
Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers 11.
37.
Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers.
38.
Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1978–1979, trans. Graham Burchell, ed. Michel Senellart (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 270.
39.
Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History, 188.
40.
Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers.
41.
Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History.
42.
PNA interview 28 October 2014.
43.
Ibid.
44.
Guevarra, “Governing migrant workers through empowerment and sustaining a culture of labor migration: the case of the Philippines,” 5.
45.
Guevarra, “Governing migrant workers through empowerment and sustaining a culture of labor migration: the case of the Philippines.”
46.
David Camroux, “Nationalizing Transnationalism? The Philippine State and the Filipino Diaspora,” in Les Études du CERI (Sciences Po, 2008). https://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/7i7knjo7kv89n9d542jjp3tg0g/resources/etude152-1.pdf.
47.
A significant event prompted this passage. In 1995, Flor Contemplacion, a Singapore-based domestic worker, was executed by the Singaporean administration for allegedly killing another Filipina domestic worker and the child in her custody. Contemplacion’s hanging infuriated Filipinos everywhere who believed that the Philippine government could have intervened on behalf of Contemplacion because she was a Filipino citizen and a migrant worker who is one of the country’s so-called ‘new national heroes.’ Following some mass protests, Philippine lawmakers were impelled to critically address the forms of rights and protections the state should extend to its citizens overseas. Robyn M. Rodriguez, “Migrant Heroes: Nationalism, Citizenship and the Politics of Filipino Migrant Labor,” Citizenship Studies 6, no. 3 (2002), https://doi.org/10.1080/1362102022000011658
48.
Omnibus Rules and Regulations Implementing the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995, (Intramuros, Manila: Department of Labor and Employment, 6 August 2010).
49.
Omnibus Rules and Regulations Implementing the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995, Short, 1.
50.
“Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995,” (27 December 2013, Geneva: Global Forum on Migration and Development, 20 July 2017). http://gfmd.org/pfp/ppd/67.
51.
Ibid.
52.
Rodriguez, “Migrant Heroes: Nationalism, Citizenship and the Politics of Filipino Migrant Labor.”
53.
Pring and Roco, “The Volunteer Phenomenon of Nurses in the Philippines.”
54.
“Thanking OFWs,” 10 April 2012, accessed 5 March 2013, http://www.bernardovillegas.org/index.php?go=/%20Articles/158/
Aubrey D. Tabuga, “How do Filipino Families Use the OFW Remittances?,” Philippine Institute for Development Studies 12 (2007), http://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/pn/pidspn0712.pdf.
55.
Linda H. Aiken et al., “Trends in international nurse migration,” Health Affairs 23, no. 3 (2004).
56.
Rodriguez, “Migrant Heroes: Nationalism, Citizenship and the Politics of Filipino Migrant Labor.”
57.
Leah Primitiva Samaco-Paquiz, House Bill No. 151, (House of Representatives, Sixteenth Congress, 1 July 2013).
58.
Samaco-Paquiz, Short House Bill No. 151.
59.
Pring and Roco, “The Volunteer Phenomenon of Nurses in the Philippines.”
60.
Philippine Department of Health (DoH) interview 18 February 2015.
61.
Ang Nars, “ANG NARS Position Paper on Unemployment and Underemployment of Filipino Nurses,” (Malabon, 8 December 2010).
62.
Philippine Nurses Association interview 28 October 2014.
63.
Rep. Samaco-Paquiz interview 26 January 2015.
64.
Ibid.
65.
It could be explained by the decline of the quality of nursing schools in which approximately 60% of nursing schools have a less than 50% passing rate on the national Nursing Board examination, hence rendering graduate nurses ineligible to practice the skill. Cheng, “The Philippines’ health worker exodus.”
Fely Marilyn E. Lorenzo et al., “Nurse Migration from a Source Country Perspective: Philippine Country Case Study,” Health Services Research 42, no. 3 Pt 2 (2007), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00716.x.
66.
Nars, “ANG NARS Position Paper on Unemployment and Underemployment of Filipino Nurses.”
67.
PNA interview 28 October 2014.
68.
Isagani T. Zarate et al., House Bill No. 7196. An Act Upgrading the Minimum Monthly Salary of Nurses to P30,000 and Providing for Benefits for Nurses, (House of Representatives, 19 February 2018).
69.
“SC upholds SG 15 minimum pay for gov’t nurses,” Philippine News Agency, 9 October 2019, accessed 22 November 2019, https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1082678.
70.
Lorenzo et al., “Nurse Migration from a Source Country Perspective: Philippine Country Case Study.”
71.
PNA interview 28 October 2014.
72.
ILO interview 4 March 2015.
73.
Barangay is a Filipino term for village or community.
74.
“Ang Nars Partylist Legislative Accomplishments,” Ang Nars, http://angnarsinc.org/ang-nars-legislative-accomplishments/#toggle-id-4.
75.
PNA interview 8 December 2014.
76.
Ibid.
77.
Rep. Samaco-Paquiz interview 26 January 2015.
78.
The full name of the project is “Promoting Decent Work Across Borders: A Project for Migrant Health Professionals and Skilled Workers”. In the book, it is referred to as ‘DWAB.’
79.
Promoting Decent Work Across Borders: A Project for Migrant Health Professionals and Skilled Workers, (Makati: International Labour Organization, 12 December 2011), http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-asia/%2D%2D-ro-bangkok/%2D%2D-ilo-manila/documents/publication/wcms_214081.pdf.
80.
Ibid.
81.
Ibid.
82.
Ibid.
83.
“Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),” World Health Organization, https://www.who.int/topics/millennium_development_goals/en/.
84.
ILO interview 4 March 2015.
85.
Ibid.
86.
Promoting Decent Work Across Borders: A Pilot Project for Migrant Health Professionals and Skilled Workers, (Makati: International Labour Organization, 30 April 2014), http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-asia/%2D%2D-ro-bangkok/%2D%2D-ilo-manila/documents/publication/wcms_173278.pdf.
87.
POEA interview 16 December 2014.
88.
Ibid.
89.
DoH interview 18 February 2015.
90.
Ibid.
91.
Ibid.
92.
PSLink interview 6 February 2015.
93.
Ibid.
94.
Ang Nars interview 26 January 2015.
95.
PSLink interview 6 February 2015.
96.
Dimaya et al., “Managing health worker migration: a qualitative study of the Philippine response to nurse brain drain,” 4.
97.
Policy brief 10. Return and Retention of Health Professionals: Lesson from India’s Experiences, International Labour Organization.
98.
PSLink interview 6 February 2015.
99.
DoH interview 18 February 2015.
100.
Lesleyanne Hawthorne, Overview and critical issues, International Labour Organization (2014).
101.
Graeme Hugo, Brain drain, brain gain or brain share? Policy Brief 1, International Labour Organization (2014).
102.
Ibid.
103.
Promoting Decent Work Across Borders: A Project for Migrant Health Professionals and Skilled Workers, (International Labour Organization, 1 October 2012), http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-asia/%2D%2D-ro-bangkok/%2D%2D-ilo-manila/documents/publication/wcms_359345.pdf.
104.
International Labour Organization, ILO’s Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration; Non-binding principles and guidelines for a rights-based approach (Geneva: International Labour Office, 2006).
105.
Ibid.
106.
“Employer’s viewpoint on incentives, programmes and policies susceptible to facilitate the acquisition and retention (circular migration) of health professionals,” International Labour Organization, October 2013��January 2014, accessed 22 August 2017.
107.
Ibid.
108.
PSLink interview 6 February 2015.
109.
DoH interview 18 February 2015.
110.
Ibid.
111.
Ibid.
112.
Ibid.
113.
Ibid.
114.
Ang Nars interview 26 January 2015.
115.
Ibid.

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Fakultät für Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Deutschland
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Mosuela, C.C. (2023). Menschenwürdige Pflegearbeit nur über die Grenzen hinweg. In: Die globale Migration von Pflegekräften zurückgewinnen. Springer VS, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-39166-8_6

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