Abstract
Purpose
School is an important developmental setting for children. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are linked to overall lower educational attainment and are more prevalent in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) than in their neurotypical peers. The aim of this study is to test the association between ACEs and school outcomes among autistic children and whether mental health conditions explain this association.
Methods
We combined 2016–2021 data from the National Surveys of Children’s Health for children, ages 6–17, identified by parents as having ASD (N = 4,997), to examine the relationship between ACEs and school outcomes (grade progression, school attendance, and engagement). We analyzed depression and anxiety variables to investigate the extent to which mental health can explain the relationships between ACEs and school outcomes.
Results
ACEs were significantly associated with school outcomes. With increased ACEs, autistic children experienced a significant decrease in the odds of school attendance, grade progression and school engagement (p < .05). Furthermore, although depression and anxiety symptoms were significantly associated with school outcomes, they cannot explain away the enduring, strong relationship between ACEs and level of grade progression, engagement, and school success index.
Conclusion
Our findings suggest ACEs predict school success among autistic children, with mental health conditions appearing to mediate the relationship between ACEs and key factors in school success. Efforts should be made to proactively identify and address the impact of ACEs and associated mental health conditions among autistic students.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, R., Taylor, J., Duncan, A., & Bishop, S. (2016). Peer victimization and Educational outcomes in Mainstreamed adolescents with Autism Spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(11), 3557–3566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2893-3.
Akhlaghipour, G., & Assari, S. (2020). Parental Education, Household Income, Race, and Children’s Working Memory: Complexity of the Effects. Brain Sci, 10(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10120950.
Ambrose, K., Simpson, K., & Adams, D. (2021). The relationship between social and academic outcomes and anxiety for children and adolescents on the autism spectrum: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 90, 102086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102086.
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, S. R., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4.
Ashburner, J., Saggers, B., Campbell, M. A., Dillon-Wallace, J. A., Hwang, Y. S., Carrington, S., & Bobir, N. (2019). How are students on the autism spectrum affected by bullying? Perspectives of students and parents. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 19(1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12421.
Baiden, P., LaBrenz, C. A., Okine, L., Thrasher, S., & Asiedua-Baiden, G. (2020). The toxic duo: Bullying involvement and adverse childhood experiences as factors associated with school disengagement among children. Children and Youth Services Review, 119, 105383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105383.
Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Ford, K., Hardcastle, K. A., Sharp, C. A., Wood, S., Homolova, L., & Davies, A. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and sources of childhood resilience: A retrospective study of their combined relationships with child health and educational attendance. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 792. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5699-8.
Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Ford, K., Ramos Rodriguez, G., Sethi, D., & Passmore, J. (2019). Life course health consequences and associated annual costs of adverse childhood experiences across Europe and North America: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 4(10), e517–e528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(19)30145-8.
Berg, K. L., Shiu, C. S., Acharya, K., Stolbach, B. C., & Msall, M. E. (2016). Disparities in adversity among children with autism spectrum disorder: A population-based study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 58(11), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.13161.
Berg, K. L., Shiu, C., Feinstein, R. T., Acharya, K., MeDrano, J., & Msall, M. E. (2019). Children with developmental disabilities experience higher levels of adversity. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 89, 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.03.011.
Bethell, C. D., Newacheck, P., Hawes, E., & Halfon, N. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences: Assessing the impact on health and school engagement and the mitigating role of resilience. Health Affairs (Project Hope), 33(12), 2106–2115. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2014.0914.
Blodgett, C., & Lanigan, J. D. (2018). The association between adverse childhood experience (ACE) and school success in elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly: The Official Journal of the Division of School Psychology American Psychological Association, 33(1), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000256.
Brown, D. W., Anda, R. F., Tiemeier, H., Felitti, V. J., Edwards, V. J., Croft, J. B., & Giles, W. H. (2009). Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of premature mortality. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 37(5), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.06.021.
Brown, M. J., Thacker, L. R., & Cohen, S. A. (2013). Association between adverse childhood experiences and diagnosis of cancer. PloS One, 8(6), e65524. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065524.
Carter Leno, V., Wright, N., Pickles, A., Bedford, R., Zaidman-Zait, A., Kerns, C., Mirenda, P., Zwaigenbaum, L., Duku, E., Bennett, T., Georgiades, S., Smith, I., Vaillancourt, T., Szatmari, P., & Elsabbagh, M. (2022). Exposure to family stressful life events in autistic children: Longitudinal associations with mental health and the moderating role of cognitive flexibility. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 26(7), 1656–1667. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211061932.
Chartier, M. J., Walker, J. R., & Naimark, B. (2009). Health risk behaviors and mental health problems as mediators of the relationship between childhood abuse and adult health. American Journal of Public Health, 99(5), 847–854. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.122408.
Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative (2022). Fast Facts: 2020–2021 National Survey of Children’s Health. Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health supported by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources and Services Administration, Maternal and Child Health Bureau. Retrieved September 18, 2023 from www.childhealthdata.org.
Cibralic, S., Alam, M., Mendoza Diaz, A., Woolfenden, S., Katz, I., Tzioumi, D., Murphy, E., Deering, A., McNamara, L., Raman, S., & Eapen, V. (2022). Utility of screening for adverse childhood experiences (ACE) in children and young people attending clinical and healthcare settings: A systematic review. BMJ open, 12(8), e060395. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-060395.
Crouch, E., Radcliff, E., Hung, P., & Bennett, K. (2019). Challenges to School Success and the role of adverse childhood experiences. Academic Pediatrics, 19(8), 899–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.08.006.
Cumming, J. J., & Dickson, E. (2013). Educational accountability tests, social and legal inclusion approaches to discrimination for students with disability: A national case study from Australia. Assessment in Education: Principles Policy & Practice, 20(2), 221–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2012.730499.
Cummings, J. R., Lynch, F. L., Rust, K. C., Coleman, K. J., Madden, J. M., Owen-Smith, A. A., Yau, V. M., Qian, Y., Pearson, K. A., Crawford, P. M., Massolo, M. L., Quinn, V. P., & Croen, L. A. (2016). Health services utilization among children with and without Autism Spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(3), 910–920. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2634-z.
Dalsgaard, S., Thorsteinsson, E., Trabjerg, B. B., Schullehner, J., Plana-Ripoll, O., Brikell, I., Wimberley, T., Thygesen, M., Madsen, K. B., Timmerman, A., Schendel, D., McGrath, J. J., Mortensen, P. B., & Pedersen, C. B. (2020). Incidence rates and cumulative incidences of the full spectrum of diagnosed Mental disorders in Childhood and Adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry, 77(2), 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3523.
Dube, S. R. (2018). Continuing conversations about adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) screening: A public health perspective. Child Abuse & Neglect, 85, 180–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.007.
Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Giles, W. H., & Anda, R. F. (2003). The impact of adverse childhood experiences on health problems: Evidence from four birth cohorts dating back to 1900. Preventive Medicine, 37(3), 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0091-7435(03)00123-3.
Duke, N. N. (2020). Adolescent adversity, School Attendance and Academic Achievement: School connection and the potential for mitigating risk. The Journal of School Health, 90(8), 618–629. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12910.
Edwards, V. J., Holden, G. W., Felitti, V. J., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Relationship between multiple forms of childhood maltreatment and adult mental health in community respondents: Results from the adverse childhood experiences study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(8), 1453–1460. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.8.1453.
Elsabbagh, M. (2020). Linking risk factors and outcomes in autism spectrum disorder: Is there evidence for resilience? BMJ (Clinical Research ed), 368, l6880. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l6880.
Estes, A., Rivera, V., Bryan, M., Cali, P., & Dawson, G. (2011). Discrepancies between academic achievement and intellectual ability in higher-functioning school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(8), 1044–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1127-3.
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8.
Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H., & Hamby, S. (2015). A revised inventory of adverse childhood experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.07.011.
Forster, M., Gower, A. L., McMorris, B. J., & Borowsky, I. W. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences and School-based victimization and perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(3–4), 662–681. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517689885.
Garcia, J. M., & Hahs-Vaughn, D. L. (2021). Health factors, sociability, and academic outcomes of typically developing Youth and Youth with Autism Spectrum disorder: A latent class analysis Approach. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(4), 1346–1352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04572-7.
Gotham, K., Cassidy, S., & Weiss, J. (2020). Mental health across the lifespan. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 24(4), 805–808. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320912132.
Hoover, D. W., & Kaufman, J. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences in children with autism spectrum disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 31(2), 128–132. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000390.
Houtepen, L. C., Heron, J., Suderman, M. J., Fraser, A., Chittleborough, C. R., & Howe, L. D. (2020). Associations of adverse childhood experiences with educational attainment and adolescent health and the role of family and socioeconomic factors: A prospective cohort study in the UK. PloS Medicine, 17(3), e1003031. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003031.
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4.
Hume, K., Steinbrenner, J. R., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2021). Evidence-based practices for Children, Youth, and young adults with autism: Third generation review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(11), 4013–4032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04844-2.
Hutson, J., & McGinley, C. (2023). Neuroaffirmative approaches to extended reality: Empowering individuals with Autism Spectrum Condition through Immersive Learning environments. International Journal of Technology in Education, 7, 300–314. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.499.
Janusek, L. W., Tell, D., Gaylord-Harden, N., & Mathews, H. L. (2017). Relationship of childhood adversity and neighborhood violence to a proinflammatory phenotype in emerging adult African American men: An epigenetic link. Brain Behavior and Immunity, 60, 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2016.10.006.
Jones, C. R., Happé, F., Golden, H., Marsden, A. J., Tregay, J., Simonoff, E., Pickles, A., Baird, G., & Charman, T. (2009). Reading and arithmetic in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: Peaks and dips in attainment. Neuropsychology, 23(6), 718–728. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016360.
Kaushal, N., & Nepomnyaschy, L. (2009). Wealth, race/ethnicity, and children’s educational outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(9), 963–971. https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:cysrev:v :31:y:2009:i:9:p:.
Keen, D., Webster, A., & Ridley, G. (2016). How well are children with autism spectrum disorder doing academically at school? An overview of the literature. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 20(3), 276–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315580962.
Kim, S. H., Bal, V. H., & Lord, C. (2018). Longitudinal follow-up of academic achievement in children with autism from age 2 to 18. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(3), 258–267. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12808.
Kim, I., Dababnah, S., & Lee, J. (2020). The influence of race and ethnicity on the relationship between family resilience and parenting stress in caregivers of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(2), 650–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04269-6.
Kuo, A. A., & Torrest, A. (2022). Meeting the primary care needs of autistic individuals. Pediatrics, 149(Suppl 4). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-049437G. e2020049437G.
Lai, M. C., Kassee, C., Besney, R., Bonato, S., Hull, L., Mandy, W., Szatmari, P., & Ameis, S. H. (2019). Prevalence of co-occurring mental health diagnoses in the autism population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(10), 819–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30289-5.
Lee, J., & Barger, B. (2022). Factors Predicting Poor Mental and Physical Health in parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Results from 2016 to 2019 National Survey of children ’s Health. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05870-yAdvance online publication.
Leiva, L., Antivilo-Bruna, A., Torres-Cortés, B., Peña, F., & Scquicciarini, A. M. (2023). Relationship between adverse childhood experiences and mental health: Implications for a nationwide school mental health program. Current Psychology, 42(13), 10849–10861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02342-x.
Lord, C., Elsabbagh, M., Baird, G., & Veenstra-Vanderweele, J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder. Lancet (London England), 392(10146), 508–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31129-2.
Lundy, S. M., Silva, G. E., Kaemingk, K. L., Goodwin, J. L., & Quan, S. F. (2010). Cognitive functioning and academic performance in Elementary School Children with Anxious/Depressed and withdrawn symptoms. Open Pediatr Med Journal, 4, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874309901004010001.
Marini, M., Di Filippo, G., Bonuomo, M., Torregiani, G., & Livi, S. (2023). Perceiving oneself to be Integrated into the peer group: A protective factor against victimization in children with Learning Disabilities. Brain Sciences, 13(2), 263. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13020263.
Marta, K., Justyna, C. Ł., Marta, S., Jerzy, L., Justyna, P. B., Agnieszka, B. Z., & Danuta, O. (2022). Selected methods of therapeutic interactions with people with mild symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 942218. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.942218.
Melchior, M., Moffitt, T. E., Milne, B. J., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2007). Why do children from socioeconomically disadvantaged families suffer from poor health when they reach adulthood? A life-course study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(8), 966–974. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm155.
Morgan, E., & Stahmer, A. (2020). Narratives of single, black mothers using cultural capital to access autism interventions in schools. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 42, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2020.1861927.
Office of the Assistance Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (2020). U.S. Federal Poverty Guidelines Used to Determine Financial Eligibility for Certain Federal Programs. Retrieved February 10, 2024 from https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines/prior-hhs-poverty-guidelines-federal-register-references/2020-poverty-guidelines.
Owens, M., Stevenson, J., Hadwin, J. A., & Norgate, R. (2012). Anxiety and depression in academic performance: An exploration of the mediating factors of worry and working memory [https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034311427433].
Pagerols, M., Prat, R., Rivas, C., Español-Martín, G., Puigbó, J., Pagespetit, È., Haro, J. M., Ramos-Quiroga, J. A., Casas, M., & Bosch, R. (2022). The impact of psychopathology on academic performance in school-age children and adolescents. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 4291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08242-9.
Pezzimenti, F., Han, G. T., Vasa, R. A., & Gotham, K. (2019). Depression in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 28(3), 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2019.02.009.
Rattaz, C., Michelon, C., & Baghdadli, A. (2015). Symptom severity as a risk factor for self-injurious behaviours in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research: JIDR, 59(8), 730–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12177.
Reschly, A. L., Huebner, E. S., Appleton, J. J., & Antaramian, S. (2008). Engagement as flourishing: The contribution of positive emotions and coping to adolescents’ engagement at school and with learning. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 419–431. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20306.
Rettew, D. C., & Pawlowski, S. (2022). Bullying: An update. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2021.09.001.
Rigles, B. (2017). The relationship between adverse childhood events, resiliency and health among children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(1), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2905-3.
Robinson, L. E., Clements, G., Drescher, A., El Sheikh, A., Milarsky, T. K., Hanebutt, R., Graves, K., Delgado, A. V., Espelage, D. L., & Rose, C. A. (2023). Developing a multi-tiered system of support-based plan for bullying Prevention among students with disabilities: Perspectives from General and Special Education teachers during Professional Development. School Mental Health, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-023-09589-8. Advance online publication.
Roscigno, V. J. (2000). Family/School inequality and African-American/Hispanic achievement. Social Problems, 47(2), 266–290. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097201.
Rose, C. A., & Gage, N. A. (2017). Exploring the involvement of bullying among students with disabilities over time. Exceptional Children, 83(3), 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291666758.
Russell, A., Gaunt, D., Cooper, K., Horwood, J., Barton, S., Ensum, I., Ingham, B., Parr, J., Metcalfe, C., Rai, D., Kessler, D., & Wiles, N. (2019). Guided self-help for depression in autistic adults: The ADEPT feasibility RCT. Health Technology Assessment (Winchester England), 23(68), 1–94. https://doi.org/10.3310/hta23680.
Schuck, R. K., Tagavi, D. M., Baiden, K. M. P., Dwyer, P., Williams, Z. J., Osuna, A., Ferguson, E. F., Jimenez Muñoz, M., Poyser, S. K., Johnson, J. F., & Vernon, T. W. (2022). Neurodiversity and autism intervention: Reconciling perspectives through a naturalistic developmental behavioral intervention Framework. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 52(10), 4625–4645. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x.
Spek, A. A., van Ham, N. C., & Nyklíček, I. (2013). Mindfulness-based therapy in adults with an autism spectrum disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(1), 246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2012.08.009.
Sreckovic, M. A., Brunsting, N. C., & Able, H. (2014). Victimization of students with autism spectrum disorder: A review of prevalence and risk factors. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(9), 1155–1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.004.
Stack, A., & Lucyshyn, J. (2019). Autism spectrum disorder and the experience of traumatic events: Review of the current literature to inform modifications to a treatment model for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1613–1625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3854-9.
Stadnick, N. A., Martinez, K., Coleman, K. J., Gizzo, D. P., Lane, E., Lee, N., Kuelbs, C. L., Aarons, G. A., & Brookman-Frazee, L. (2022). Mental health screening in pediatric primary care for children with autism. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 26(5), 1305–1311. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211062963.
StataCorp. (2019). Stata Statistical Software: Release 16. StataCorp LLC.
Stempel, H., Cox-Martin, M., Bronsert, M., Dickinson, L. M., & Allison, M. A. (2017). Chronic School Absenteeism and the role of adverse childhood experiences. Academic Pediatrics, 17(8), 837–843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.09.013.
The United States Census Bureau (2019). 2019 National Survey of Children’s Health Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/nsch/technical-documentation/methodology/2019-NSCH-FAQs.pdf.
The United States Census Bureau (2018). 2018 National Survey of Children’s Health Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/nsch/technical-documentation/methodology/2018-NSCH-FAQs.pdf.
The United States Census Bureau (2020). 2020 National Survey of Children’s Health Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/nsch/technical-documentation/methodology/2020-NSCH-FAQs.pdf.
The United States Census Bureau (2017). 2017 National Survey of Children’s Health Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-surveys/nsch/tech-documentation/methodology/2017-NSCH-FAQs.pdf.
The United States Census Bureau (2021). 2021 National Survey of Children’s Health Methodology Report. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/nsch/technical-documentation/methodology/2021-NSCH-Methodology-Report.pdf.
The United States Census Bureau (2016). 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-surveys/nsch/tech-documentation/methodology/NSCH-2016-FAQs.pdf.
Thurlow, M. L., Lazarus, S. S., Thompson, S. J., & Morse, A. B. (2005). State policies on Assessment Participation and accommodations for students with disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 38(4), 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669050380040401.
Totsika, V., Hastings, R. P., Dutton, Y., Worsley, A., Melvin, G., Gray, K., Tonge, B., & Heyne, D. (2020). Types and correlates of school non-attendance in students with autism spectrum disorders. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 24(7), 1639–1649. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320916967.
Uljarević, M., Hedley, D., Rose-Foley, K., Magiati, I., Cai, R. Y., Dissanayake, C., Richdale, A., & Trollor, J. (2020). Anxiety and depression from adolescence to Old Age in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(9), 3155–3165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04084-z.
van der Kolk, B. A. (2003). The neurobiology of childhood trauma and abuse. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12(2), 293–ix. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1056-4993(03)00003-8.
van Steensel, F. J. A., Bogels, S. M., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(3), 302–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-011-0097-0.
Wade, R., Jr, Shea, J. A., Rubin, D., & Wood, J. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences of low-income urban youth. Pediatrics, 134(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-2475.
Wade, R., Jr, Cronholm, P. F., Fein, J. A., Forke, C. M., Davis, M. B., Harkins-Schwarz, M., Pachter, L. M., & Bair-Merritt, M. H. (2016). Household and community-level adverse childhood experiences and adult health outcomes in a diverse urban population. Child Abuse & Neglect, 52, 135–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.021.
Webb, N. J., Miller, T. L., & Stockbridge, E. L. (2022). Potential effects of adverse childhood experiences on school engagement in youth: a dominance analysis. BMC public health, 22(1), 2096. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14524-8.
Webber, K. C., & Smokowski, P. R. (2018). Assessment of adolescent optimism: Measurement invariance across gender and race/ethnicity. Journal of Adolescence, 68, 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.06.014.
Wilson-Genderson, M., Heid, A. R., Cartwright, F., & Pruchno, R. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences, adult trauma, and depressive symptom trajectories. Aging & Mental Health, 26(11), 2170–2178. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2021.1978926.
Xu, G., Strathearn, L., Liu, B., & Bao, W. (2018). Prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorder among US children and adolescents, 2014–2016. Journal of the American Medical Association, 319(1), 81–82. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.17812.
Yang, C., Sharkey, J. D., Reed, L. A., Chen, C., & Dowdy, E. (2018). Bullying victimization and student engagement in elementary, middle, and high schools: Moderating role of school climate. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000250.
Yusuf, A., Wright, N., Steiman, M., Gonzalez, M., Karpur, A., Shih, A., Shikako, K., & Elsabbagh, M. (2022). Factors associated with resilience among children and youths with disability during the COVID-19 pandemic. PloS One, 17(7), e0271229. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271229.
Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Blumberg, S. J., Kogan, M. D., & Boyle, C. A. (2019). Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among children in the United States: 2009–2017. Pediatrics, 144(4), e20190811. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-0.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Victoria Persky at the University of Illinois Chicago for helpful discussions during preparation of this manuscript.
Funding
No external funding was received for this research.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Hélène Gussin, Cheng-Shi Shiu, Christianna Danguilan, Iulia Mihaila, Kruti Acharya and Kristin Berg. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Hélène Gussin and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Research Involving Human Participants and/or Animals
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Gussin, H.A., Shiu, CS., Danguilan, C. et al. Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Mental Health on School Success in Autistic Children: Findings from the 2016–2021 National Survey of Children’s Health. J Autism Dev Disord (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06338-x
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06338-x