Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Electroconvulsive Therapy Beyond Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorders

  • Published:
Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of Review

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been in the limelight now for a century, yet it has been underutilized and under-rated as an effective treatment option in many neuropsychiatric conditions. Mostly, it has been considered as a treatment strategy to treat patients with treatment resistant schizophrenia as an augmentation strategy or in cases of severe manic agitation or bipolar depression. We review the research in the field of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on neurological and psychiatric conditions/disorders beyond schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Recent Findings

Apart from schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, there is robust evidence on the efficacy and utility of ECT for treatment-resistant depression, catatonia due to functional or organic causes, suicidality, managing severe aggression in patients with dementia, treatment refractory obsessive–compulsive disorder, and neurological conditions like Parkinson’s disease and refractory epilepsy.

Summary

Research on ECT on conditions other than schizophrenia and bipolar disorder is well documented with proven efficacy in depression, catatonia, and suicidality. There is also a growing body of evidence of ECT in neuropsychiatric conditions like Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, dementia, and also OCD. However, the research and clinical utility of ECT are still limited as compared to other brain stimulation techniques due to the stigma and attitude of patients as well as clinicians towards ECT. More well-designed controlled studies with larger sample size in all disorders where ECT has been shown to improve symptomatology are warranted to overcome the barriers to its use.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
EUR 32.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or Ebook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. Reisner AD. The electroconvulsive therapy controversy: evidence and ethics. Neuropsychol Rev. 2003;13:199–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. • Trifu S, Sevcenco A, Stănescu M, et al. Efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy as a potential first‑choice treatment in treatment‑resistant depression (Review). Exp Ther Med. 2021;22: 1–8. This article is the recent most updated review on the efficacy of ECT in treatment-resistant depression and summarizes the safety data and effectiveness data from all available trials, as well as it discusses the key issues of barriers of its usage in depression.

  3. Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2003;361:799–808.

  4. Malhi GS, Mann JJ. Depression Lancet. 2018;392:2299–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Li M, Yao X, Sun L, et al. Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on depression and its potential mechanism. Front Psychol. 2020;11:80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder, third edition. | National Guideline Clearinghouse. 2011. https://guideline.gov/summaries/summary/24158/Practice-guideline-for-the-treatment-of-patients-with-major-depressive-disorder-third-edition. Accessed 3 Jun 2017.

  7. Kennedy SH, Lam RW, McIntyre RS, et al. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) 2016 clinical guidelines for the management of adults with major depressive disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 2016;61:540–60.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Gautam S, Jain A, Gautam M, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of depression. Indian J Psychiatry. 2017;59:S34–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Omori W, Itagaki K, Kajitani N, et al. Shared preventive factors associated with relapse after a response to electroconvulsive therapy in four major psychiatric disorders. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2019;73:494–500.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Husain MM, Rush AJ, Fink M, et al. Speed of response and remission in major depressive disorder with acute electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a Consortium for Research in ECT (CORE) report. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65:485–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Nuninga JO, Claessens TFI, Somers M, et al. Immediate and long-term effects of bilateral electroconvulsive therapy on cognitive functioning in patients with a depressive disorder. J Affect Disord. 2018;238:659–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kellner CH, Husain MM, Knapp RG, et al. Right unilateral ultrabrief pulse ECT in geriatric depression: phase 1 of the PRIDE Study. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173:1101–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Kellner CH, Husain MM, Knapp RG, et al. A novel strategy for continuation ECT in geriatric depression: phase 2 of the PRIDE Study. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173:1110–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Lisanby SH, McClintock SM, Alexopoulos G, et al. Neurocognitive effects of combined electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and venlafaxine in geriatric depression: phase 1 of the PRIDE Study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2020;28:304–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Spaans H-P, Sienaert P, Bouckaert F, et al. (2015) Speed of remission in elderly patients with depression: electroconvulsive therapy v. medication. Br J Psychiatry. 2015;206:67–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Pagnin D, de Queiroz V, Pini S, et al. Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review. J ECT. 2004;20:13–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Tor P-C, Bautovich A, Wang M-J, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of brief versus ultrabrief right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy for depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:20683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Kolshus E, Jelovac A, McLoughlin DM. Bitemporal v. high-dose right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychol Med. 2017;47:518–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Pluijms EM, Kamperman AM, Hoogendijk WJ, et al. Influence of an adjuvant antidepressant on the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2021;55:366–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Dar H, Vuthaluru K, Folajimi A, et al. Effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy for preventing relapse and recurrence of depression in adults with major depressive disorder: an updated meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Cureus. 2023;15:e35683.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Berlim MT, Van den Eynde F, Daskalakis ZJ. Efficacy and acceptability of high frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Depress Anxiety. 2013;30:614–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Chen J-J, Zhao L-B, Liu Y-Y, et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of electroconvulsive therapy versus repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for major depression: a systematic review and multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Behav Brain Res. 2017;320:30–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Rhee TG, Shim SR, Forester BP, et al. Efficacy and safety of ketamine vs electroconvulsive therapy among patients with major depressive episode: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiat. 2022;79:1162–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. • Deng Z-D, Robins PL, Regenold W, et al. How electroconvulsive therapy works in the treatment of depression: is it the seizure, the electricity, or both? Neuropsychopharmacology. Epub ahead of print 24 July 2023. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-023-01677-2. This review discusses on the mechanism of action of ECT and its various modifications in the treatment of depression.

  25. • Haq AU, Sitzmann AF, Goldman ML, et al. Response of depression to electroconvulsive therapy: a meta-analysis of clinical predictors. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:1374–1384. This study demonstrated important predictors of response to ECT.

  26. •• van Diermen L, van den Ameele S, Kamperman AM, et al. Prediction of electroconvulsive therapy response and remission in major depression: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2018;212:71–80. This study discusses on the various clinical predictors of ECT with regard to response and remission in major depression

  27. Jelovac A, Kolshus E, McLoughlin DM. Relapse following successful electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38:2467–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Elias A, Phutane VH, Clarke S, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in the continuation and maintenance treatment of depression: systematic review and meta-analyses. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2018;52:415–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wells K, Hancock N, Honey A. The experience of living after ECT: a qualitative meta-synthesis. J Ment Health. 2021;30:526–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Varjola A. Patients’ experiences and attitudes towards ECT treatment. Descriptive Literature Review, Centria University of Applied Sciences. 2023. https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/792901/Varjola_Aleksi.pdf?sequence=2

  31. Kellner CH, Fink M, Knapp R, et al. Relief of expressed suicidal intent by ECT: a consortium for research in ECT study. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:977–82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Fink M. Catatonia from its creation to DSM-V: considerations for ICD. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011;53:214–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Rasmussen SA, Mazurek MF, Rosebush PI. Catatonia: our current understanding of its diagnosis, treatment and pathophysiology. World J Psychiatry. 2016;6:391–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Fink M, Taylor MA. Catatonia: a separate category in DSM-IV? Integrative Psychiatry. 1991;7:2–10.

    Google Scholar 

  35. de Silva VA, Lakmini WD, Gunawardena HN, et al. Chronic catatonia treated with electroconvulsive therapy: a case report. J Med Case Reports. 2013;7:219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. •• Rogers JP, Oldham MA, Fricchione G, et al. Evidence-based consensus guidelines for the management of catatonia: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol. 2023;37:327–369. This guideline give a detailed account of usage of ECT in the management of Catatonia.

  37. Pelzer AC, van der Heijden FM, den Boer E. Systematic review of catatonia treatment. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2018;14:317–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. National Institute for Clinical Excellence. Guidance on the use of electroconvulsive therapy. Technology Appraisal 59. London: NICE, 2003.

  39. Chiou Y-J, Lee Y, Lin C-C, et al. A case report of catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome with multiple treatment modalities: short communication and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94:e1752.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Fink M, Kellner CH, McCall WV. The role of ECT in suicide prevention. J ECT. 2014;30:5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Kellner CH, Li EH, Farber KG, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and suicide prevention. Curr Treat Options Psych. 2016;3:73–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Munk-Olsen T, Laursen TM, Videbech P, et al. All-cause mortality among recipients of electroconvulsive therapy: register-based cohort study. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:435–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Rönnqvist I, Nilsson FK, Nordenskjöld A. Electroconvulsive therapy and the risk of suicide in hospitalized patients with major depressive disorder. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e2116589.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Sienaert P, Brus O, Lambrichts S, et al. Suicidal ideation and ECT, ECT and suicidal ideation: a register study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2022;146:74–84.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Lin C-H, Yang W-C, Wu J-I. Factors affecting time to resolution of suicidality for depressed patients receiving electroconvulsive therapy. CNS Spectr. 2020;25:434–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Spanggård A, Rohde C, Østergaard SD. Risk factors for suicide among patients having received treatment with electroconvulsive therapy: a nationwide study of 11,780 patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2023;147:333–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Rhee TG, Sint K, Olfson M, et al. Association of ECT with risks of all-cause mortality and suicide in older medicare patients. AJP. 2021;178:1089–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Kaster TS, Vigod SN, Gomes T, et al. Risk of serious medical events in patients with depression treated with electroconvulsive therapy: a propensity score-matched, retrospective cohort study. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2021;8:686–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Wang X, Wu H, Wang D, et al. Reduced suicidality after electroconvulsive therapy is linked to increased frontal brain activity in depressed patients: a resting-state fMRI study. Front Psychiatry. 2023;14. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1224914. Accessed 7 Nov 2023.

  50. Li X, Chen X, Yu R, et al. Changes in gray matter volume following electroconvulsive therapy in adolescent depression with suicidal ideation: a longitudinal structural magnetic resonance imaging study. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.944520. Accessed 7 Nov 2023.

  51. Fontenelle LF, Coutinho ESF, Lins-Martins NM, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:949–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Liu X, Cui H, Wei Q, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy on severe obsessive-compulsive disorder comorbid depressive symptoms. Psychiatry Investig. 2014;11:210–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Li K, Long J, Deng W, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a retrospective study. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1040443. Accessed 7 Nov 2023.

  54. Aggarwal A, Aggarwal N, Prasad S. Electroconvulsive therapy in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder: a series of three cases. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2019;21:26313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Lins-Martins NM, Yücel M, Tovar-Moll F, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a chart review and evaluation of its potential therapeutic effects. JNP. 2015;27:65–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Martins-Correia J, Rodrigues-Silva N, Nunes S. Electroconvulsive therapy in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: a case report. J ECT. 2021;37:e17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Yahya AS, Khawaja S. Electroconvulsive therapy for refractory anxiety disorders. Prog Neurol Psychiatry. 2021;25:34–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Tomruk NB, Saatcioglu O, Ugurlu E, et al. ECT use in refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni-Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2010;20:167–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Khanna S, Gangadhar BN, Sinha V, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Convuls Ther. 1988;4:314–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Mota D, Almeida F, Oliveira A, et al. ECT combined with clomipramine and rTMS in an OCD patient with secondary severe depression. Eur Psychiatry. 2017;41:S642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Gadit AM, Smigas T. Efficacy of ECT in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder with Parkinson’s disease. Case Reports. 2012;2012:bcr0120125675.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Sağlam T, Aksoy Poyraz C, Poyraz BÇ, et al. Successful use of electroconvulsive therapy in a patient with anorexia nervosa and severe acute-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2018;51:1026–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Kitching D. Depression in dementia. Aust Prescr. 2015;38:209–2011.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Cloak N, Al Khalili Y. Behavioral and psychological symptoms in dementia. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551552/. Accessed 7 Nov 2023.

  65. Oudman E. Is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) effective and safe for treatment of depression in dementia? A short review J ECT. 2012;28:34–8.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Selvadurai MI, Waxman R, Ghaffar O, et al. Efficacy and safety of maintenance electroconvulsive therapy for sustaining resolution of severe aggression in a major neurocognitive disorder. Case Rep. 2018;2018:bcr.

  67. Grover S, Sahoo S, Pradeep C, et al. Catatonia in dementia managed with electroconvulsive therapy: a case report and review of the evidence. J Geriatric Mental Health. 2017;4:146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Rao V, Lyketsos CG. The benefits and risks of ECT for patients with primary dementia who also suffer from depression. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2000;15:729–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Forester B, Rahman A, Ash E, et al. Evidence for electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in the treatment of intractable behavioral symptoms of dementia (BPSD): a systematic review. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2020;28:S122–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Tampi RR, Tampi DJ, Young J, et al. The place for electroconvulsive therapy in the management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. Neurodegenerative Disease Management. 2019;9:283–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Bachu AK, Kotapati VP, Kainth T, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in individuals with dementia/major NCD presenting with behavioral symptoms: a systematic review. Int Psychogeriatr. 2023;1–16.

  72. Hausner L, Damian M, Sartorius A, et al. Efficacy and cognitive side effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in depressed elderly inpatients with coexisting mild cognitive impairment or dementia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71:6005.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Cumper SK, Ahle GM, Liebman LS, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in Parkinson’s disease: ECS and dopamine enhancement. J ECT. 2014;30:122.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Kennedy R, Mittal D, O’Jile J. Electroconvulsive therapy in movement disorders: an update. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2003;15:407–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Narang P, Glowacki A, Lippmann S. Electroconvulsive therapy intervention for Parkinson’s disease. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2015;12:25–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Andersen K, Balldin J, Gottfries CG, et al. A double-blind evaluation of electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson’s disease with ‘on-off’ phenomena. Acta Neurol Scand. 1987;76:191–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Takamiya A, Seki M, Kudo S, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for Parkinson’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mov Disord. 2021;36:50–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lunde ME, Lee EK, Rasmussen KG. Electroconvulsive therapy in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2006;9:355–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Regenold WT, Weintraub D, Taller A. Electroconvulsive therapy for epilepsy and major depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1998;6:180–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Ahmed J, Metrick M, Gilbert A, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for super refractory status epilepticus. J ECT. 2018;34:e5–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. García-López B, Gómez-Menéndez AI, Vázquez-Sánchez F, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in super refractory status epilepticus: case series with a defined protocol. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17:4023.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Schneegans H, Stetefeld H, Dohmen C, et al. Successful treatment of super-refractory status epilepticus with high-intensity electroconvulsive therapy - a case report and review of the current literature. J Epilepsy Res. 2019;9:76–82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Tan HJ, Tee TY, Husin M, et al. A case series of super-refractory status epilepticus successfully treated with electroconvulsive therapy. Epileptic Disord. 2020;22:828–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Trinka E, Brigo F. Neurostimulation in the treatment of refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav; 101. Epub ahead of print 1 December 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.106551

  85. Zeiler FA, Matuszczak M, Teitelbaum J, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy for refractory status epilepticus: a systematic review. Seizure. 2016;35:23–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Purohith AN, Vaidyanathan S, Udupa ST, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices: a case report and systematic review of published cases. J ECT. 2023;39:46–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Baghai TC, Möller H-J. Electroconvulsive therapy and its different indications. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008;10:105–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Sartorius A, Hewer W. Safe performance of ECT in severely ill patients: a retrospective study. European J Psychiatry. 2007;21:237–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, PGIMER, Chandigarh, 160012, India

    Swapnajeet Sahoo & Shalini S. Naik

Authors
  1. Swapnajeet Sahoo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shalini S. Naik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

SS did the relevant literature search and drafted the first manuscript. SSN critically analysed the first draft and added modifications at relevant places. Both the authors approved the final draft for submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Swapnajeet Sahoo.

Ethics declarations

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sahoo, S., Naik, S.S. Electroconvulsive Therapy Beyond Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorders. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40473-024-00273-y

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40473-024-00273-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation