Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Exploring Pathways to Middle School Students’ Life Satisfaction

  • Published:
Child Indicators Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Given the developmental importance of parental roles in early adolescence, research in the etiology of adolescents’ life satisfaction begins at the family level. Therefore, this study investigates whether inconsistent parenting influences young adolescents’ life satisfaction through the mediating roles of other individual-related variables, including self-esteem and behavioral regulation, for male and female adolescents. Data were extracted from the Korean Child Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), which is a longitudinal panel study of 1802 middle school students in South Korea. This study demonstrated that the relationship between inconsistent parenting and life satisfaction was mediated by self-esteem in both gender groups and by behavioral regulation only in the male group. It also showed evidence of serial mediation when the paths included behavioral regulation as a distal mediator in male adolescents. The findings of the study support that negative cognitive schema partially formed by inconsistent maternal parenting predisposes an adolescent to negative self-evaluation and emotions, leading to dissatisfaction with their lives.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Cognitive vulerability to depression in children and adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In J. R. Z. Abela & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Depression in children and adolescents (pp. 35–78). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abubakar, A., Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Suryani, A. O., Handayani, P., & Pandia, W. S. (2015). Perceptions of parenting styles and their associations with mental health and life satisfaction among urban Indonesian adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(9), 2680–2692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Acun-Kapikiran, N., Korukcu, O., & Kapikiran, S. (2014). The relation of parental attitudes to life satisfaction and depression in early adolescents: The mediating role of self-esteem. Kuram Ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri, 14(4), 1246–1252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antaramian, S., & Lee, J. (2017). The importance of very high life satisfaction for students’ academic success. Cogent Education, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1307622.

  • Ayoub, C., Vallotton, C. D., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2011). Developmental pathways to integrated social skills: The roles of parenting and early intervention. Child Development, 82(2), 583–600.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barger, S. D., Donoho, C. J., & Wayment, H. A. (2009). The relative contributions of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, health, and social relationships to life satisfaction in the United States. Quality of Life Research, 18(2), 179–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, J. K., Sanson, A. V., & Hemphill, S. A. (2006). Parent influences on early childhood internalizing difficulties. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(6), 542–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: New American Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, R., & Perkins, T. S. (2001). Cognitive content-specificity for anxiety and depression: A meta-analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25(6), 651–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol.1 attachment). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brumariu, L. E. (2015). Parent-child attachment and emotion regulation. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2015(148), 31–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Howse, R. B. (2004). Individual differences in self-regulation: Implications for cildhood adjustment. In P. Philippot & R. S. Feldman (Eds.), The regulation of emotion (pp. 307–322). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapple, C. L., Vaske, J., & Hope, T. L. (2010). Sex differences in the causes of self-control: An examination of mediation, moderation, and gendered etiologies. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(6), 1122–1131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, J. M., Kang, J. H., & Lee, B. K. (2012). Effects of family structure and friendship network on Korean adolescents’ life satisfaction. Social Science Review, 43(1), 47–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F. (2001). Control and the development of negative emotion. In M. W. Vasey & M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 112–142). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Colman, R. A., Hardy, S. A., Albert, M., Raffaelli, M., & Crockett, L. (2006). Early predictors of self-regulation in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 15(4), 421–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005). Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period: Relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age 5. Infant and Child Development, 14, 117–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, C. E., & Boyle, M. H. (2002). Preschoolers at risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Family, parenting, and behavioral correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(6), 555–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidov, M., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warnth to child outcomes. Child Development, 77(1), 44–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Ridder, D. T. D., & Gillebaart, M. (2016). Lessons learned from trait self-control in well-being: Making the case for routines and initiation as important components of trait self-control. Health Psychology Review, 11(1), 89–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, G. M., Didner, H., Waniel, A., Priel, B., Asherov, J., & Arbel, S. (2005). Perceived parental care and control among Israeli female adolescents presenting to emergency rooms after self-poisoning. Adolescence, 40(158), 257–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, R. A. (2005). Adolescent gender differences in mattering and wellness. Journal of Adolescence, 28(6), 753–763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16(12), 939–944.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dwairy, M. (2008). Parental inconsistency versus parental authoritarianism: Association with symptoms of psychological disorders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(5), 616–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kraemer, H. C. (2003). Exposure to maternal depression and marital conflict: Gender differences in children’s later mental health symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 728–737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P., Gaffney, H., & Ttofi, M. M. (2017). Systematic reviews of the effectivenss of developmental prevention programs in reducing delinquency, aggression, and bullying. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 33, 91–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forste, R., & Moore, E. (2012). Adolescent obesity and life satisfaction: Perceptions of self-peers, family, and school. Economics and Human Biology, 10(4), 385–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). Children’s competence and value beliefs from childhood through adolescence: Growth trajectories in two male-sex-typed domains. Developmental Psychology, 38(4), 519–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 103–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner, A. E., Fite, P. J., & Colder, C. R. (2010). Parenting and friendship quality as predictors of internalizing and externalizing symptoms in early adolescence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(1), 101–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gang, B.-E., Kim, E.-B., & Kim, J.-S. (2017). Mediating effects of career identity on the relation between study habits and life satifsaction among adolescents. Teacher Education Research, 56(1), 94–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, C., Holden, C. J., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Velotti, P. (2015). Understanding the connection between self-esteem and aggression: The mediating role of emotion dysregulation. Aggressive Behavior, 42(1), 3–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, R. S., Chamratrithirong, A., Pattaravanich, U., & Prasartkul, P. (2013). Happiness among adolescent students in Thailand: Family and non-family factors. Social Indicators Research, 110(2), 703–719.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Han, M., Choi, I. C., Kim, B. J., Lee, H. J., Kim, K. M., & Ryu, S. G. (2012). Happiness of Korean adolescence: Age-based comparison. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 19(5), 217–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heberle, A. E., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2015). A person-oriented approach to identifying parenting styles in mothers of early school-age children. Infant and Child Development, 24(2), 130–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heo, M. Y. (2000). A study for the development and validation of ‘parenting behavior inventory’ perceived by adolescent. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea.

  • Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T. (1989). Continuities and discontinuities in self-regulatory and self-evaluative processes: A developmental theory relating self and affect. Journal of Personality, 57(2), 407–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, E. S., Drane, W., & Valois, R. F. (2000). Levels and demographic correlates of adolescent life satisfaction reports. School Psychology International, 21(3), 281–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, E. S., Suldo, S. M., Smith, L. C., & McKnight, C. G. (2004). Life satisfaction in children and youth: Empirical foundations and implications for school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 41(1), 81–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang, X., Huebner, E. S., & Hills, K. J. (2013). Parent attachment and early adolescents’ life satisfaction: The mediating effect of hope. Psychology in the Schools, 50(4), 340–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joung, S. Y., & Kim, J. Y. (2010). The relationship between juvenile attachment, recognition of self-regulated learning ability. Educational Research, 29(1), 83–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, M. J., & Yu, Y. O. (2011). Young children’s self-regulation ability according to parents’ emotional expressiveness type and their gender. The Journal of Child Education, 20(1), 95–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. Y., Lim, J. Y., Kim, S. W., Park, S. H., You, S. R., Choi, J. Y., & Lee, K. Y. (2006). A survey on adolescents’ development index 1, verification of a measurement index in the result section. Seoul: National Youth Development Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, K. M., Lengua, L. J., & Monahan, K. C. (2013). Individual differences in the development of self-regulation during pre-adolescence: Connections to context and adjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(1), 57–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, H. A., O’Bryant, K., & Hopkins, H. R. (1996). Recalled parental authority style and self-perception among college men and women. Journal of General Psychology, 157(1), 5–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kogler, L., Seidel, E., Metzler, H., Thaler, H., Boubela, R. N., Pruessner, J. C., Kryspin-Exner, I., Gur, R. C., Windischberger, C., Moser, E., Habel, U., & Derntl, B. (2017). Impact of self-esteem and sex on stress reactions. Scientific Reports, 7(17210), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17485-w.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korea University Behavior Science Research Center. (2000). Handbook of psychological measurements I. Seoul: Hakjisa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwak, H. K., & Choi, B. H. (1999). Relationships between children’s temperament, maternal control strategies and children’s self-control behaviors. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 20(1), 165–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lacruz, M. E., Schmidt-Pokrzywniak, A., Dragano, N., Moebus, S., Deutrich, S. E., Möhlenkamp, S., Schmermund, A., Kaelsch, H., Erbel, R., & Stang, A. (2016). Depressive symptoms, life satisfaction and prevalence of sleep disturbances in the general population of Germany: Results from the Heinz Nixdorf recall study. BMJ Open, 6(1), e007919.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laskey, B. J., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2009). Parental discipline behaviors and beliefs about their child: Associations with child internalizing and mediation relationships. Child: Care, Health and Development, 35(5), 717–727.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y. S. (2010). The relationship between mother’s parenting style and children’s self-regulation. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 26(3), 63–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H. Y., & Lim, J. S. (2006). Relationships between parenting behavior and leadership life skills of adolescents. Humanities and Social Sciences Research, 7, 173–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S.-W., Yu, H.-K., & Kwon, S.-Y. (2012). The development of group counseling program to enhance self-regulatory learning ability of the underachieved gifted elementary school students. Korean Journal of Teacher Education, 28(2), 165–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lightfoot, C., Cole, M., & Cole, S. (2009). The development of children. New York: Worth Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lim, S. A., You, S., & Ha, D. (2015). Parental emotional support and adolescent happiness: Mediating roles of self-esteem and emotional intelligence. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 10(4), 631–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippold, M. A., Davis, K. D., Lawson, K. M., & McHale, S. M. (2016). Day-to-day consistency in positive parent-child interactions and youth well-being. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(12), 3584–3592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luxton, D. D. (2007). The effects of inconsistenct parenting on the development of uncertain self-esteem and depression vulnerability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, KS, USA.

  • Mackinnon, D. P., & Dwyer, J. H. (1993). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies. Evaluation Review, 17(17), 144–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malone, P. S., Lansford, J. E., Castellino, D. R., Berlin, L. J., Dodge, J. A., Bates, J. E., et al. (2004). Divorce and child behavior problems: Applying latent change score models to life event data. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, 401–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manian, N., Strauman, T. J., & Denney, N. (1998). Temperament, recalled parenting styles, and self-regulation: Testing the developmental postuates of self-discrepancy theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(5), 1321–1332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manian, N., Papadakis, A. A., Strauman, T. J., & Essex, M. J. (2006). The development of children’s ideal and ought self-guides: Parenting, temperament, and individual differences in guide strength. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1619–1645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, K., Bray, M. A., Kehle, T. J., Theodore, L. A., & Gelbar, N. W. (2011). Promoting happiness and life satisfaction in school children. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 26(3), 177–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioural regulation and preschoolers’ literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 947–959.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moilanen, K. L., & Rambo-Hernandez, K. E. (2017). Effects of maternal parenting and mother-child relationship quality on short-term longitudinal change in self-regulation in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 37(5), 618–641.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moksnes, U. K., & Espnes, G. A. (2013). Self-esteem and life satisfaction in adolescents: Gender and age as potential moderators. Quality of Life Research, 22(10), 2921–2928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, K. C., Steinberg, L., Cauffman, E., & Mulvey, E. P. (2009). Trajectories of antisocial behavior and psychosocial maturity from adolescence to young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1654–1668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moretti, M. M., & Higgins, E. T. (1990). Relating self-discrepancy to self-esteem: The contribution of discrepancy beyond actual-self ratings. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26(2), 108–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mruk, C. (2006). Self-esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orth, U., Robins, R. W., Meier, L. L., & Conger, R. D. (2016). Refining the vulnerability model of low self-esteem and depression: Disentangling the effects of genuine self-esteem and narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(1), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pan, Y. G., Zhang, D. J., Liu, Y. L., Ran, G. M., & Teng, Z. J. (2016). Different effects of patenral and maternal attachment on psychological health among Chinese secondary school students. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(10), 2998–3008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, S., Kang, M., & Kim, E. (2015). Self-esteem change in adolescents: Latent state-trait model. The Korean Journal of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 27(1), 63–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raboteg-Saric, Z., & Sakic, M. (2014). Relations of parenting styles and friendship quality to self-esteem, life satisfaction and happiness in adolescents. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 9(3), 749–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raffaelli, M., Crockett, L., & Shen, Y. L. (2005). Developmental stability and change in self-regulation from childhood to adolescence. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166(1), 54–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, R. W., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2005). Self-esteem development across the lifespan. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(3), 158–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, C. R. (1985). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21(2), 95–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz, S. Y., Roosa, M. W., & Gonzales, N. A. (2002). Predictors of self-esteem for Mexican American and European American youths: A reexamination of the influence of parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(1), 70–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandstrom, H., & Huerta, S. (2013). The negative effects of instability on child development: A research synthesis. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Positive psychology, positive prevention and positive therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 3–9). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shek, D. T. L. (2005). A longitudinal study of perceived family functioning and adolescent adjustment in Chinese adolescents with economic disadvantage. Journal of Family Issues, 26(4), 518–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, C. L., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2006). The relation of maternal behavior and attachment security to toddler’s emotions and emotion regulation. Research in Human Development, 3(1), 21–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • So, S., Kim, D.-O., & Choi, E.-J. (2017). The neural networks on integration model of psychological well-being and school adjustment in adolescents. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 24(8), 357–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sohn, S.-H., Noh, K.-S., Huh, M. Y., Jung, H.-O., Lee, S. H., & Kim, S. (2001). A study of adolescent problem behaviors and parenting behaviors. Journal of Korean Neuropsychiatric Association, 40(4), 605–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Son, S., Lee, H., & Hong, S. (2017). The effects of school learning activities and friendships on adolescents’ life satisfaction: A longitudinal study using a piecewise latent growth model. Studies on Korean Youth, 28(3), 57–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, M. J., & Han, S. Y. (2011). Effects of mother’s neuroticism, parenting stress and young children’s stress on problem behaviors. Family and Environment Research, 49(5), 117–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suchodoletz, A., Trommsdorff, G., Heikamp, T., Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009). Transition to school: The role of kindergarten children’s behavior regulation. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(4), 561–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E. (2012). Health Psychology (8th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomlinson, R. M., Keyfitz, L., Rawana, J. S., & Lumley, M. N. (2017). Unique contributions of positive schemas for understanding child and adolescent life satisfaction and happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18(5), 1255–1274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veed, G. J. (2009). The role of the peer group in adolescence: Effects on internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE, USA.

  • Williamson, J. A., McCabe, J. E., O’Hara, M. W., Hart, K. J., LaPlante, D. P., & King, S. (2013). Parenting stress in early motherhood: Stress spillover and social support. Comprehensive Psychology, 2(11), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, M. H. (2000). The study on the development and validation of self-regulated learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.

  • Yum, Y. S., Kim, K. M., & Lee, S. W. (2016). 2016 8th international comparative research on children and adolescents’ happiness. Yonsei University Society Development Research Institute.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kyung Eun Jahng.

Ethics declarations

This material has not been published in whole or in part elsewhere; all authors have been personally and actively involved in substantive work leading to the manuscript, and will hold themselves jointly and individually responsible for its content.

Conflict of Interest

The author whose name is listed above certify that they have NO affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers’ bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest (such as personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jahng, K.E. Exploring Pathways to Middle School Students’ Life Satisfaction. Child Ind Res 12, 1643–1662 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9602-z

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9602-z

Keywords

Navigation