Abstract
Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis, the main filariae of domestic and wild carnivores, are responsible for most cases of human infections by zoonotic filariae. Other species of animal filariae that have been reported in human patients include species from the genus Dirofilaria and nematodes from genera Onchocerca, Brugia, and Molinema. The higher frequency of human infection by Dirofilaria spp. compared to infections by other zoonotic filariae may be due to various factors. For example, awareness and attention of physicians for zoonotic filarial infection is higher in developed countries, where the dog represents an important reservoir for Dirofilaria worms. Climate change, together with the movement of infected dogs to previously unsuitable areas, is likely responsible for the increase in areas endemic for D. immitis and D. repens, with the consequence of an increase risk of infection for humans in temperate countries. Infection by D. repens is more frequent in Europe, where the documented infections by D. immitis appear rare, but the situation is different in other countries, e.g., in the USA, where human infections by D. immitis are frequently recorded. Infections by Dirofilaria worms are generally paucisymptomatic, but cases are also reported characterized by a severe clinical picture. The control of Dirofilaria infections in humans is essentially based on the control of the infection in dogs, and particular attention should be devoted to the transit of unprotected dogs (i.e., dogs that do not receive prophylactic treatment) in endemic areas, increasing the risk of acquiring filarial infections and of importing the infection in non-endemic areas.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbas KF, El-Monem SG, Malik Z et al (2006) Surgery still opens an unexpected bag of worms. An intraperitoneal live female Dirofilaria worms: case report and review of the literature. Surg Infect 7:323–324
Akao N (2011) Human dirofilariasis in Japan. Trop Med Heath 39:65–71
Ali-Khan Z (1977) Tissue pathology and comparative microanatomy of Onchocerca from a resident of Ontario and other enzootic Onchocerca species from Canada and the USA. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 71:469–482
Anderson RC (2000) Nematode parasites of vertebrates; their development and transmission. CABI Publishing, Wallingford
Angunawela RI, Atullah S, Whitehead KJ et al (2003) Dirofilarial infection of the orbit. Orbit 22:41–46
Avellis FO, Kramer LH, Mora P et al (2011) A case of human conjunctival dirofilariasis by Dirofilaria immitis in Italy. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11:451–452
Azarova NS, Miretskij OY, Sonin MD (1965) The first discovered case of nematode parasitism in the USSR in a human being (genus Onchocerca Diesing, 1841). Med Parazytol (Moscow) 34:156–158
Baird KJ, Neafie RC (1988) South American brugian filariasis: report of a human infection acquired in Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 39:185–188
Beaver PC, Horner GS, Bilos JZ (1974) Zoonotic onchocercosis in a resident of Illinois and observations on the identification of Onchocerca species. Am J Trop Med Hyg 23:595–607
Beaver PC, Meyers EA, Jarroll EL et al (1980) Dipetalonema from the eye of a man in Oregon. Am J Trop Med Hyg 29:369–372
Beaver PC, Wolfson JS, Waldron MA et al (1987) Dirofilaria ursi-like parasites acquired by humans in the northern United States and Canada: report of two cases and brief review. Am J Trop Med Hyg 37:357–362
Beaver PC, Yoshimura H, Takayasu S et al (1989) Zoonotic Onchocerca in a Japanese child. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40:298–300
Bernardi M (2008) Global climate change–a feasibility perspective of its effect on human health at a local scale. Geospat Health 2(2):137–150
Botero D, Aguledo LM, Uribe FJ et al (1984) Intraocular filaria, a Loaina species, from man in Colombia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 33:578–582
Cancrini G, Tassi P, Coluzzi M (1989) Ivermectin against larval stages of Dirofilaria repens in dogs. Parassitologia 31:177–182
Elenitoba-Johnson KSJ, Eberhard ML, Dauphinais RM et al (1996) Zoonotic brugian lymphadenitis: an unusual case with florid monocytoid B-cell proliferation. Am J Clin Pathol 105:384–387
ESCCAP Guideline No 5 (2009) Control of vector-borne diseases in dogs and cats. http://www.esccap.org/. Accessed 15 June 2013
Fleck R, Kurz W, Quade B et al (2009) Human dirofilariasis due to Dirofilaria repens mimicking a scrotal tumor. Urology 73:e1–e3
Fok É, Jacsó O, Szebeni Z et al (2010) Elimination of Dirofilaria (syn. Nochtiella) repens microfilariae in dogs with monthly treatments of moxidectin 2.5 %/imidacloprid 10 % (Advocate®, Bayer) spot-on. Parasitol Res 106:1141–1149
Fortin JF, Slocombe JOD (1981) Temperature requirements for the development of Dirofilaria immitis in Aedes triseriatus and Ae. vexans. Mosq News 41:625–633
Genchi C, Rinaldi L, Cascone C et al (2005) Is heartworm really spreading in Europe? Vet Parasitol 133:137–148
Genchi M, Ferrari N, Sirtori M et al (2007) Can a human shelter for dogs be a risk factor for spreading of canine filarial (Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens) infection? First European Dirofilaria Days Abstract book, Zagreb, February 2007, p 8
Genchi C, Rinaldi L, Mortarino M et al (2009) Climate and Dirofilaria in Europe. Vet Parasitol 163:286–292
Genchi M, Pengo G, Genchi C (2010) Efficacy of moxidectin microsphere sustained release formulation for the prevention of subcutaneous filarial (Dirofilaria repens) infection in dogs. Vet Parasitol 170:167–169
Genchi C, Kramer LH, Rivasi F (2011a) Dirofilaria infections in Europe. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11:1307–1317
Genchi C, Mortarino M, Rinaldi L et al (2011b) Changing climate and changing vector-borne disease distribution: the example of Dirofilaria in Europe. Vet Parasitol 176:295–299
Genchi C, Genchi M, Petry G et al (2013) Evaluation of the efficacy of imidacloprid 10 %/moxidectin 2.5 % (Advocate®, Advantage® Multi, Bayer) for the prevention of Dirofilaria repens infection in dogs. Parasitol Res 112(1):81–89
Gorezis S, Psilla M, Asproudis I et al (2006) Intravitreal dirofilariasis: a rare ocular infection. Orbit 25:57–59
Gungel H, Kara N, Pinarci EY et al (2009) An uncommon case with intravitreal worm. Br J Ophthalmol 93:573–574
Gutierrez Y (1990) Diagnostic pathology of parasitic infections with clinical correlations. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA
IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report glossary. Fourth Assessment Report (AR4)
Kartashev V, Batashove I, Kartashov S et al (2011) Canine and human dirofilariasis in the Rostov Region (Southern Russia). Vet Med Int. doi:10.4061.2011.6857.3
Khasnis AA, Nettleman MD (2005) Global warming and infectious disease. Arch Med Res 36:689–696
Knols BGJ, Takken W (2007) Alarm bells ringing: more of the same, and new and novel diseases and pets. In: Takken BGJ, Knols W (eds) Emerging pests and vector-borne diseases in Europe. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, pp 13–19
Knott J (1939) A method for making microfilarial survey on day blood. Trans R Soc Med Hyg 33:191
Lee ACY, Montgomery SP, Theis JH et al (2000) Public health issues concerning the widespread distribution of canine heartworm disease. Trends Parsitol 26:168–173
Lee ACY, Montgomery SP, Theis JH et al (2010) Public health issues concerning the widespread distribution of canine heartworm disease. Trend Parasitol 26:168–173
Levy JK, Edinboro CH, Glotfelty C-S et al (2007) Seroprevalence of Dirofilaria immitis, feline leukemia virus, and feline immunodeficiency virus infection among dogs and cats exported from the 2005 Gulf Coast hurricane disaster area. J Am Vet Med Assoc 231:218–225
Lok JB, Knight DH (1998) Laboratory verification of a seasonal heartworm transmission model. In: Seward RL (ed) Advances in heartworm disease. American Heartworm Society, Batavia, IL, pp 15–20
Masny A, Gołąb E, Cielka D et al (2013) Vector-borne of dogs and humans—focus in central and eastern part of Europe. Parasit Vectors 6:38–39
McCall JW, Genchi C, Kramer LH et al (2008) Heartworm disease in animals and humans. Adv Parasitol 66:193–285
Medlock JM, Avenell D, Barras I et al (2006) Analysis of the potential for survival and seasonal activity of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in the United Kingdom. J Vector Ecol 31:292–304
Menendez MC, Bouza M (1988) Brugia species in a man from western Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 39:189–190
Morchón R, Moya I, González-Miguel J et al (2010) Zoonotic Dirofilaria immitis infections in a province of Northern Spain. Epidemiol Infect 138:380–383
Mortarino M, Musella V, Costa V et al (2008) GIS modeling for canine dirofilariasis risk assessment in central Italy. Geospat Health 2:253–261
Orihel TC, Beaver PC (1989) Zoonotic Brugia infections in North and South America. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40:638–647
Orihel TC, Eberhard ML (1998) Zoonotic Filariasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 11:366–381
Orihel TC, Isbey EK (1990) Dirofilaria striata infection in a North Carolina child. Am J Trop Med Hyg 42:124–126
Otranto D, Capelli G, Genchi C (2009) Changing distribution patterns of canine vector borne diseases in Italy: leishmaniosis vs dirofilariasis. Parasit Vectors Suppl 1:S2. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-2-S1-S2
Pampiglione S, Rivasi F (2000) Human dirofilariasis due to Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) repens: an update of world literature from 1995 to 2000. Parassitologia 42:235–254
Pampiglione S, Canestri Trotti G, Rivasi F (1995) Human dirofilariasis due to Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) repens: a review of world literature. Parassitologia 37:149–193
Pampiglione S, Rivasi F, Gustinelli A (2009) Dirofilarial human cases in the Old World, attributed to Dirofilaria immitis: a critical analysis. Histopathology 54:192–204
Pantchev N, Norden N, Lorentzen L et al (2009) Current surveys on the prevalence and distribution of Dirofilaria spp. in dogs in Germany. Parasitol Res 105:S63–S74
Perret-Court A, Coulibaly B, Ranque S et al (2009) Intradural dirofilariasis mimicking a Langerhans cell histiocytosis tumor. Pediatr Blood Cancer 53:485–487
Purse BV, Mellor PS, Rogers DJ et al (2005) Climate change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe. Nat Rev Microbiol 53:171–181
Raccurt CP (1999) La dirofilariose, zonnose émergente et méconnue en France. Med Trop (Mars) 59:389–400
Rezza G, Nicoletti L, Romi R et al (2007) Infection with chikungunya virus in Italy: an outbreak in a temperate region. Lancet 370:1840–1846
Rogers DJ, Randolph SE (2006) Climate change and vector-borne diseases. Adv Parasitol 62:345–381
Sambri V, Capobianchi M, Chanell R et al (2013) West Nile virus in Europe: emergence, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Clin Microbiol Infect. doi:10.1111.1469.0691.12211
Sassnau R, Genchi C (2013) Qualitative risk assessment for the endemisation of Dirofilaria repens in the state of Brandenburg (Germany) based on temperature-dependent vector competence. Parasitol Res 112:2647–2652
Scholte EJ, Dijkstra E, Blok H et al (2008) Accidental importation of the mosquito Aedes albopictus into The Netherlands: a survey of mosquito distribution and the presence of dengue virus. Med Vet Entomol 22:352–358
Sergiev VP, Supriaga VG, Morozov EN et al (2009) Human dirofilariosis: diagnosis and the pattern of pathogen-host relations. Med Parazitol (Mosk) 3:3–6
Siegenthaler R, Gubler R (1965) Paraarticulares Nematodengranulom (einheimische Onchocerca). Schweiz Med Wochenschr 95:1102–1104
Simón F, Prieto G, Morchón R et al (2003) Immunoglobulin G antibodies against the endosymbionts of filarial nematodes (Wolbachia) in patients with pulmonary dirofilariasis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 10:180–181
Simón F, López-Belmonte J, Marcos-Atxutegi C et al (2005) What is happening outside North America regarding human dirofilariasis? Vet Parasitol 133:181–189
Simón F, Siles-Lucal M, Morchón R et al (2012) Human and animal dirofilariasis: the emergence of a zoonotic mosaic. Clin Microbiol Rev 25:507–543
Slocombe JOD, Surgeoner GA, Srivastava B (1989) Determination of the heartworm transmission period and its use in diagnosis and control. In: Otto GF (ed) Proceedings of the Heartworm Symposium’89. American Heartworm Society, Batavia, IL, pp 19–26
Szénási Z, Kovács H, Pampiglione S et al (2008) Human dirofilariasis in Hungary: an emerging zoonosis in central Europe. Wien Klin Wochenschr 120:96–102
Takaoka H, Bain O, Tajimi S et al (1996) Second case of zoonotic Onchocerca infection in a resident of Oita in Japan. Parasite 3:179–182
Takumi K, Scholte E-J, Braks M et al (2009) Introduction, scenarios for establishment and seasonal activity of Aedes albopictus in The Netherlands. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 9:191–196
Tatem AJ, Rogers DJ, Hay SI (2006) Global transport networks and infectious disease spread. Adv Parasitol 62:293–343
Theis JH (2005) Public health aspects of dirofilariasis in the United States. Vet Parasitol 133:157–180
Traversa D, Aste G, Milillo P et al (2010) Autochthonous foci of canine and feline infections by Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens in central Italy. Vet Parasitol 169:128–132
Vezzani D, Carbajo AE (2006) Spatial and temporal transmission risk of Dirofilaria immitis in Argentina. Int J Parasitol 36:1463–1472
Webber WAF, Hawking F (1955) Experimental maintenance of Dirofilaria repens and D. immitis in dogs. Exp Parasitol 4:143–164
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer-Verlag Wien
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Genchi, C., Bandi, C., Kramer, L., Epis, S. (2014). Dirofilaria Infections in Humans and Other Zoonotic Filarioses. In: Bruschi, F. (eds) Helminth Infections and their Impact on Global Public Health. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1782-8_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1782-8_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Vienna
Print ISBN: 978-3-7091-1781-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-7091-1782-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)