Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among Chinese American adolescents’ discrimination experiences, cultural orientations, and delinquent behaviors. Data were collected from three hundred and eleven Chinese American adolescents (58% girls) and their parents when the adolescents were 7th or 8th graders and again 4 years later. The data analyses demonstrated that adolescents’ perceptions of discrimination and victimization experiences were significantly related to their delinquent behaviors conditionally based upon their cultural orientation. Specifically, adolescents’ high Chinese cultural orientation amplified the negative impact of discriminatory experiences on delinquent behaviors whereas high Western cultural orientation protected them against that impact. The significance of both ethnic and mainstream cultural orientations for understanding ethnic minority adolescents’ adjustment and improving their adjustment outcomes is discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (2001). Manual for the youth self-report and 2001 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychology.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Alvarez, A. N., Juang, L. A., & Liang, C. T. (2006). Asian Americans and racism: When bad things happen to “model minorities”. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 477–492.
Alvarez, A., & Kimura, E. (2001). Asian Americans and racial identity: Dealing with racism and snowballs. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23, 192–206.
Ancheta, A. N. (1998). Race rights and the Asian American experience. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Aponte, J. F., & Johnson, L. R. (2000). The impact of culture on the intervention and treatment of ethnic populations. In J. F. Aponte & J. Wohl (Eds.), Psychological intervention and cultural diversity (pp. 18–39). Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon.
Barnes, P. W., & Lightsey, O. R., Jr. (2005). Perceived racist discrimination, coping, stress, and life satisfaction. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 33, 48–61.
Beiser, M., & Hou, F. (2006). Ethnic identity, resettlement stress and depressive affect among Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. Social Science and Medicine, 63, 137–150.
Belsley, D. A., Kuh, E., & Welsch, R. E. (1980). Regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. New York: Wiley.
Berry, J. W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista, & G. Marín (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied research (pp. 17–37). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189.
Broman, C. L., Mavaddat, R., & Hsu, S. (2000). The experience and consequences of perceived racial discrimination: A study of African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 165–180.
Caldwell, C. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., Chavous, T. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial discrimination and racial identity as risk or protective factors for violent behaviors in African American young adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33, 91–105.
Cassidy, C., O’Connor, R., Howe, C., & Warden, D. (2004). Perceived discrimination and psychological distress: The role of personal and ethnic self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 329–339.
Chakraborty, A., & McKenzie, K. (2002). Does racial discrimination cause mental illness? The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 475–477.
Chan, S. (1991). Asian Americans: An interpretive history. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
Chang, H. H., & Ng, K. S. (2002). The perception of resiliency mechanisms in Chinese American families: Implications for family therapy. Family Therapy, 29, 89–100.
Choi, Y., & Lahey, B. B. (2006). Testing the model minority stereotype: Youth behaviors across racial and ethnic groups. Social Service Review, 80, 419–452.
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.
Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F. W., West, S. G., Hawkins, J. D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., et al. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022.
Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K. A., & Ludwig, J. (2004). The endogeneity problem in developmental studies. Research in Human Development, 1, 59–80.
Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.
Fischer, A. R., & Shaw, C. M. (1999). African Americans’ mental health and perceptions of racist discrimination: The moderating effects of racial socialization experiences and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 395–407.
Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., & Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679–695.
Forman, T. A., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (1997). Race, place, and discrimination. Perspectives on Social Problems, 9, 231–261.
Garcia Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., et al. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competence in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891–1914.
Gibbons, F. X., Yeh, H., & Gerrard, M. (2007). Early experience with racial discrimination and conduct disorder as predictors of subsequent drug use: A critical period hypothesis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88, S27–S37.
Gonzales, N. A., Tein, J.-Y., Sandler, I. N., & Friedman, R. J. (2001). On the limits of coping: Interaction between stress and coping for inner-city adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 372–395.
Goto, S. G., Gee, G. C., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2002). Strangers still? The experience of discrimination among Chinese Americans. Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 211–224.
Greene, M. L., Way, N., & Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42, 218–238.
Hall, P. W., & Hwang, V. M. (2001). Anti-Asian violence in North America. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.
Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42–57.
Helms, J. E., & Cook, D. A. (1999). Using race and culture in counseling and psychotherapy: Theory and process. Needham heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Jackson, J. S., Brown, T. N., Williams, D. R., Torres, M., Sellers, S. L., & Brown, K. (1996). Racism and the physical and mental health status of African Americans: A thirteen year national panel study. Ethnicity and Disease, 6, 132–147.
Jensen, P., Roper, M., Fisher, P., & Piacentini, J. (1995). Test-retest reliability of the diagnostic interview schedule for children (DISC 2.1): Parent, child, and combined algorithms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 61–71.
Jose, P. E., & Huntsinger, C. S. (2005). Moderation and mediation effects of coping by Chinese American and European American adolescents. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 16–43.
Kao, G. (2000). Group images and possible selves among adolescents: Linking stereotypes to expectations by race and ethnicity. Sociological Forum, 15, 407–430.
Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208–230.
Klonoff, E. A., Landrine, H., & Ullman, J. B. (1999). Racial discrimination and psychiatric symptoms among Blacks. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 329–339.
Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Social Science and Medicine, 30, 1273–1281.
Lai, M. H. (2005). Responding to Asian Pacific Islander youth violence: Lessons learned from a community mobilization strategy. Crime and Delinquency, 51, 158–179.
Le, T. N., & Stockdale, G. D. (2005). Individualism, collectivism, and delinquency in Asian American adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 681–691.
Lee, R. M. (2003). Do ethnic identity and other-group orientation protect against discrimination for Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 133–141.
Lee, R. M. (2005). Resilience against discrimination: Ethnic identity and other-group orientation as protective factors for Korean Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 36–44.
Liang, B., Grossman, J. M., & Deguchi, M. (2007). Chinese American middle school youths’ experiences of discrimination and stereotyping. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 4, 187–205.
Liu, L. L., Lau, A. S., Chen, A. C.-C., Dinh, K. T., & Kim, S. Y. (2009). The influence of maternal acculturation, neighborhood disadvantage, and parenting on Chinese American adolescents’ conduct problems: Testing the segmented assimilation hypothesis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 691–702.
Mak, A. S., & Nesdale, D. (2001). Migrant distress: The role of perceived racial discrimination and coping resources. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 2632–2647.
Matsouka, J. K., & Ryujin, D. H. (1991). Asian American immigrants: A comparison of the Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 18(3), 123–133.
Mossakowski, K. N. (2003). Coping with perceived discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 318–331.
Noh, S., Beiser, M., Kaspar, V., Hou, F., & Rummens, J. (1999). Perceived racial discrimination, depression, and coping: A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 193–207.
Operario, D., & Fiske, S. (2001). Ethnic identity moderates perceptions of prejudice: Judgments of personal versus group discrimination and subtle versus blatant bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 550–561.
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499–514.
Phinney, J. S. (2003). Ethnic identity and acculturation. In K. M. Chun, P. B. Organista, & G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement and applied research (pp. 63–82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Prelow, H. M, Mosher, C. E., & Bowman, M. A. (2006). Perceived racial discrimination, social support, and psychological adjustment among African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 442–454.
Rigby, K. (2000). Effects of peer victimization in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 57–68.
Root, M. P. P. (1998). Multiracial Americans. In L. C. Lee & N. W. S. Zane (Eds.), Hand book of Asian American psychology (pp. 261–287). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein, & S. Weintrabe (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–214). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ryder, A. G., Alden, L. E., & Paulhus, D. L. (2000). Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 49–65.
Saito, L. T. (2001). The politics of adaptation and the ‘good immigrant’: Japanese Americans and the new Chinese immigrants. In M. Lopez-Garza & D. R. Diaz (Eds.), Asian and Latino immigrants in a restructuring economy: The metamorphosis of Southern California (pp. 332–349). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial Identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 302–317.
Sellers, R. M. & Shelton, J. N. (2003). Racial identity, discrimination, and mental health among African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079–1092.
Shelton, J. N., & Sellers, R. M. (2000). Situational stability and variability in African American racial identity. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 27–50.
Smith, E. J. (1991). Ethnic identity development: Toward the development of a theory within the context of majority/minority status. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 181–188.
Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders, victims: 2006 National report. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Tsai, J. L., Chentsova-Dutton, Y., & Wong, Y. (2002). Why and how we should study ethnic identity, acculturation, and cultural orientation. In G. Hall & S. Okazaki (Eds.), Asian American psychology: The science of lives in context (pp. 41–65). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Tuan, M. (1998). Forever foreigners or honorary Whites?. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Umana-Taylor, A. J., & Updegraff, K. A. (2007). Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 549–567.
Werkuyten, M., & Nekuee, S. (1998). Subjective well-being, discrimination, and cultural conflict: Iranians living in the Netherlands. Social Indicators Research, 47, 281–306.
Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socioeconomic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335–351.
Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents’ school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197–1232.
Ying, Y., Lee, P. A., & Tsai, J. L. (2000). Cultural orientation and racial discrimination: Predictors of coherence in Chinese American young adults. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 427–442.
Yip, T., Gee, G. C. & Takeuchi, D. T. (2008). Racial discrimination and psychological distress: The impact of ethnic identity and age among immigrant and United States–born Asian adults. Developmental Psychology, 44, 787–800.
Yoo, H. C., & Lee, R. M. (2005). Ethnic identity and approach-type coping as moderators of the racial discrimination/well-being relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 497–506.
Yoo, H. C., & Lee, R. M. (2008). Does ethnic identity buffer or exacerbate the effects of frequent racial discrimination on situational well-being of Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55, 63–74.
Young, K., & Takeuchi, D. T. (1998). Racism. In L. C. Lee & N. W. S. Zane (Eds.), Handbook of Asian American psychology (pp. 401–432). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Acknowledgments
Support for this research was provided through awards to Su Yeong Kim from (1) Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD R03HD051629 (2) Office of the Vice President for Research Grant/Special Research Grant and Summer Research Assignment from the University of Texas at Austin (3) Jacobs Foundation Young Investigator Grant (4) American Psychological Association Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs, Promoting Psychological Research and Training on Health Disparities Issues at Ethnic Minority Serving Institutions Grant (5) American Psychological Foundation/Council of Graduate Departments of Psychology, Ruth G. and Joseph D. Matarazzo Grant (6) California Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, Extended Education Fund (7) American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, Massachusetts Avenue Building Assets Fund and (8) Eunice Kennedy Shriver NICHD R24HD042849 grant awarded to the Population Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Deng, S., Kim, S.Y., Vaughan, P.W. et al. Cultural Orientation as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Chinese American Adolescents’ Discrimination Experiences and Delinquent Behaviors. J Youth Adolescence 39, 1027–1040 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9460-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9460-6