Abstract
Around solar maximum, the dominant interplanetary phenomena causing intense magnetic storms (Dst<−100 nT) are the interplanetary manifestations of fast coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Two interplanetary structures are important for the development of storms, involving intense southward IMFs: the sheath region just behind the forward shock, and the CME ejecta itself. Whereas the initial phase of a storm is caused by the increase in plasma ram pressure associated with the increase in density and speed at and behind the shock (accompanied by a sudden impulse [SI] at Earth), the storm main phase is due to southward IMFs. If the fields are southward in both of the sheath and solar ejecta, two-step main phase storms can result and the storm intensity can be higher. The storm recovery phase begins when the IMF turns less southward, with delays of ≈1–2 hours, and has typically a decay time of 10 hours. For CMEs involving clouds the intensity of the core magnetic field and the amplitude of the speed of the cloud seems to be related, with a tendency that clouds which move at higher speeds also posses higher core magnetic field strengths, thus both contributing to the development of intense storms since those two parameters are important factors in genering the solar wind-magnetosphere coupling via the reconnection process.
During solar minimum, high speed streams from coronal holes dominate the interplanetary medium activity. The high-density, low-speed streams associated with the heliospheric current sheet (HCS) plasma impinging upon the Earth's magnetosphere cause positive Dst values (storm initial phases if followed by main phases). In the absence of shocks, SIs are infrequent during this phase of the solar cycle. High-field regions called Corotating Interaction Regions (CIRs) are mainly created by the fast stream (emanating from a coronal hole) interaction with the HCS plasma sheet. However, because the Bz component is typically highly fluctuating within the CIRs, the main phases of the resultant magnetic storms typically have highly irregular profiles and are weaker. Storm recovery phases during this phase of the solar cycle are also quite different in that they can last from many days to weeks. The southward magnetic field (Bs) component of Alfvén waves in the high speed stream proper cause intermittent reconnection, intermittent substorm activity, and sporadic injections of plasma sheet energy into the outer portion of the ring current, prolonging its final decay to quiet day values. This continuous auroral activity is called High Intensity Long Duration Continuous AE Activity (HILDCAAs).
Possible interplanetary mechanisms for the creation of very intense magnetic storms are discussed. We examine the effects of a combination of a long-duration southward sheath magnetic field, followed by a magnetic cloud Bs event. We also consider the effects of interplanetary shock events on the sheath plasma. Examination of profiles of very intense storms from 1957 to the present indicate that double, and sometimes triple, IMF Bs events are important causes of such events. We also discuss evidence that magnetic clouds with very intense core magnetic fields tend to have large velocities, thus implying large amplitude interplanetary electric fields that can drive very intense storms. Finally, we argue that a combination of complex interplanetary structures, involving in rare occasions the interplanetary manifestations of subsequent CMEs, can lead to extremely intense storms.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akasofu, S.-I.: 1981, 'Energy Coupling between the Solar Wind and the Magnetosphere', Space Sci. Rev. 28, 111.
Axford, W. I. and Hines, C. O.: 1961, 'A Unifying Theory of High Latitude Geophysical Phenomena and Geomagnetic Storms', Can. J. Phys. 39, 1433.
Behannon, K. W., Burlaga, L. F. and Hewish, A.: 1991, 'Structure and Evolution of Compound Streams at _ 1 AU', J. Geophys. Res. 96, 21213.
Belcher, J. W. and Davis, L., Jr.: 1971, 'Large Amplitude Alfvén Waves in the Interplanetary Medium, 2', J. Geophys. Res. 76, 3534.
Bell, J. T., Gussenhoven, M. S. and Mullen, E. G.: 1997, 'Super Storms', J. Geophys. Res. 102, 14189.
Borrini, G., Gosling, J. T., Bame, S. J. and Feldman, W. C.: 1982, 'An Analysis of Shock Wave Disturbances Observed at 1 AU from 1971 through 1978', J. Geophys. Res. 87, 4365.
Borovsky, J. E., Thomsen, M. F. and McComas, D. J.: 1997, 'The Superdense Plasma Sheet: Plasmaspheric Origin, SolarWind Origin, or Ionospheric Origin?', J. Geophys. Res. 102, 22089.
Bothmer, V. and Schwenn, R.: 1995, 'The Interplanetary and Solar Causes of Major Geomagnetic Storms', J. Geomag. Geolectr. 47, 1127.
Bravo, S., Cruz-Abeyro, A. L. and Rojas, D.: 1998, 'The Spatial Relationship between Active Regions and Coronal Holes and the Occurrence of Intense Geomagnetic Storms through the Solar Activity Cycle', Ann. Geophys. 16, 49.
Burlaga, L. F.: 1995, Interplanetary Magnetohydrodynamics, Oxford University Press, New York.
Burlaga, L. F. and Lepping, R. P.: 1977, 'The Causes of Recurrent Geomagnetic Storms', Planetary Space Phys. 25, 1151.
Burlaga, L. F., Pizzo, V., Lazarus, A. and Gazis, P.: 1985, 'Stream Dynamics between 1 AU and 2 AU: A Comparison of Observations and Theory', J. Geophys. Res. 90, 7317.
Burlaga, L. F., Sittler, E., Mariani, F. and Schwenn, R.: 1981, 'Magnetic Loop Behind an Interplanetary Shock: Voyager, Helios and IMP-8 Observations', J. Geophys. Res. 86, 6673.
Burlaga, L. F., Behannon, K.W. and Klein, L. W.: 1987, 'Compound Streams, Magnetic Clouds and Major Geomagnetic Storms', J. Geophys. Res. 92, 5725.
Burlaga, L. F., Fitzenreiter, R., Lepping, R. P., Ogilvie, K., Szabo, A., Lazarus, A., Steinberg, J., Gloeckler, G., Howard, R., Michels, D., Farrugia, C., Lin, R. P. and Larson, D. E.: 1998, 'A Magnetic Cloud Containing Prominence Material: January 1997', J. Geophys. Res. 103, 277.
Cane, H. V. and Richardson, I. G.: 1997, 'What Caused the Large Geomagnetic Storm of November 1978?', J. Geophys. Res. 102, 17445.
Chen, L. and Hasegawa, A.: 1974, 'A Theory of Long-Period Magnetic Pulsations, 1), Steady State Excitation of Field-Line Resonances', J. Geophys. Res. 79, 1024.
Choe, G. S., LaBelle-Hamer, N., Tsurutani, B. T. and Lee, L. C.: 1992, 'Identification of a Driver Gas Boundary Layer', EOS Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 73, 485.
ClÚa de Gonzalez, A. L., Gonzalez, W. D., Dutra, S. L. G. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1993, 'Periodic Variation in the Geomagnetic Activity: a Study Based on the Ap Index', J. Geophys. Res. 98, 9215.
ClÚa de Gonzalez, A. L., Silbergleit, V., Gonzalez, W. D. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1998, 'Is the Classical Seasonal Pattern Valid for High Intensity Levels of the Geomagnetic Activity?', J. Atmospheric Terrest. Phys., submitted.
Costello, K. A.: 1996, 'Retraining Neutral Networks for the Prediction of Dst in the Rice Magnetospheric Specification and Forecast Model', M.S. Thesis, Rice University, Houston, Texas.
Crooker, N. V., Gosling, J. T. and Kahler, S. W.: 1998, 'Magnetic Clouds at Sector Boundaries', J. Geophys. Res. 103, 301.
Dryer, M.: 1994, 'Interplanetary Studies: Propagation of Disturbances between the Sun and the Magnetosphere', Space Sci. Rev. 67, 363.
Dungey, J. W.: 1961, 'Interplanetary Magnetic Field and the Auroral Zones', Phys. Rev. Lett. 6, 47.
Farrugia, C. J., Burlaga, L. F., Osherovich, V. A., Richardson, I. G., Freeman, M. P., Lepping, R. P. and Lazarus, A. J.: 1993, 'A Study of an Expanding Interplanetary Magnetic Cloud and Its Interaction with the Earth's Magnetosphere: the Interplanetary Aspect', J. Geophys. Res. 98, 7621.
Farrugia, C. J., Osherovich, V. A. and Burlaga, L. F.: 1995, 'Magnetic Flux Rope versus the Spheromak as Models for Interplanetary Magnetic Clouds', J. Geophys. Res. 100, 2293.
Farrugia, C. J., Burlaga, L. F. and Lepping, R. P.: 1997, in B. T. Tsurutani, W. D. Gonzalez and Y. Kamide (eds), 'Magnetic Clouds and the Quiet-Storm Effect at Earth', Magnetic Storms, AGU Monograph, Washington D.C., p. 91.
Galvin, A. B., Ipavich, F.M., Gloeckler, G., Hovestadt, D., Bame, S. J., Kleckler, B., Scholer,M. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1987, 'Solar Wind Ion Charge Status Preceding a Driver Plasma', J. Geophys. Res. 92, 12069.
Gold, T.: 1962, 'Magnetic Storms', Space Sci. Rev. 1, 100.
Gonzalez, W. D. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1987, 'Criteria of Interplanetary Parameters Causing Intense Magnetic Storms (Dst < _100 nT)', Planetary Space Sci. 35, 1101.
Gonzalez, W. D. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1992, 'Terrestrial Response to Eruptive Solar Flares: Geomagnetic Storms-A Review', in Z. Švestka, B. V. Jackson and M. E. Machado (eds), Frontiers in Physics: Eruptive Solar Flares, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 277.
Gonzalez, W. D., Tsurutani, B. T., ClÚa de Gonzalez, A. L., Tang, F., Smith, E. J. and Akasofu, S. I.: 1989, 'SolarWind-Magnetosphere Coupling During Intense Geomagnetic Storms (1978–1979)', J. Geophys. Res. 94, 883.
Gonzalez, W. D., ClÚa de Gonzalez, A. L., Mendes, O., Jr. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1992, 'Difficulties in Defining Storm Sudden Commencements', EOS Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 73, 180.
Gonzalez, W. D., Joselyn, J. A., Kamide, Y., Kroehl, H. W., Rostoker, G., Tsurutani, B. T. and Vasyliunas, V. M.: 1994, ' What is a Geomagnetic Storm?', J. Geophys. Res. 99, 5771.
Gonzalez, W. D., ClÚa de Gonzalez, A. L. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1995, 'Geomagnetic Response to Large-Amplitude Interplanetary Alfvén Wave Trains', Physica Scripta 51, 140.
Gonzalez, W. D., Tsurutani, B. T., McIntosh, P. and ClÚa de Gonzalez, A. L.: 1996, 'Coronal-Holes-Active Region-Current Sheet Association with Intense Interplanetary and Geomagnetic Phenomena', Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 2577.
Gonzalez, W. D., ClÚa De Gonzalez,. L., Dal Lago, A., Tsurutani, B. T., Arballo, J. K., Lakhina, G. S., Buti, B. and Ho, G. M.: 1998, 'Magnetic Cloud Field Intensities and Solar Wind Velocities', Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 963.
Gosling, J. T., Baker, D. N., Bame, S. J., Feldman, W. C. and Zwickl, R. D.: 1987, 'Bi-Directional Solar Wind Electron Heat Flux Events', J. Geophys. Res. 92, 8519.
Gosling, J. T., McComas, D. J., Phillips, J. L. and Bame, S. J.: 1991, 'Geomagnetic Activity Associated with Earth Passage of Interplanetary Shock Disturbances and Coronal Mass Ejections', J. Geophys. Res. 96, 7831.
Grande,M., Perry, C. H., Blake, J. B., Chen, M.W., Fennell, J. F. and Wilken, B.: 1996, 'Observations of Iron, Silicon, and Other Heavy Ions in the Geostationary Altitude Region During Late March 1991', J. Geophys. Res. 101, 24707.
Ivanov, K. G., Harschiladze, A. F., Eroshenko, E. G., and Styazhkin, V. A.: 1989, 'Configuration, Structure and Dynamics of Magnetic Clouds from Solar Flares in Light of Measurements on Board Vega 1 and Vega 2 in January-February 1986', Solar Phys. 120, 407.
Jackson, B. V.: 1997, 'Heliospheric Observations of Solar Disturbances and Their Potential Role in the Origin of Storms', in B. T. Tsurutani, W. D. Gonzalez and Y. Kamide (eds), Magnetic Storms, Amer. Geophys. Union Press, Washington D.C., Mon. Ser. 98, p. 59.
Kamide, Y., Yokoyama, N., Gonzalez, W. D., Tsurutani, B. T., Brekke, A. and Masuda, S.: 1998, 'Two-Step Development of Geomagnetic Storms', J. Geophys. Res. 103, 6917.
Klein, L. W. and Burlaga, L. F.: 1982, 'Interplanetary Magnetic Clouds at 1 AU', J. Geophys. Res. 87, 613.
Kennel, C. F., Edmiston, J. P. and Hada, T.: 1985, 'A Quarter Century of Collionless Shock Research', in R. G. Stone and B. T. Tsurutani (eds), Collisionless Shocks in the Heliosphere, AGU Monograph, Ser. 34, Washington D.C., p. 1.
Kozyra, J. U., Fok, M.-C., Jordanova, V. K. and Borovsky, J. E.: 1998, 'Relationship between Plasma Sheet Preconditioning and Subsequent Ring Current Development During Periods of Enhanced Cross-Tail Electric Field', International Conference on Substorms-4, abstract 5–02, p. 80.
Knipp, D. J., Emery, B. A., Engebretson, N., Li, X., McAllister, A. H., Mukai, T., Kokubun, S., Reeves, G. D., Evans, D., Obara, T., Pi, X., Rosenberg, T., Weatermax, A., McHarg, M. G., Chun, F., Mosely, K., Crodescu, M., Lanzerotti, L., Rich, F. J., Sharber, J. and Wilkinson, P.: 1998, 'An Overview of the Early November 1993 Geomagnetic Storm', J. Geophys. Res. 103, 26197.
Legrand, J. P. and Simon, P. A.: 1991, 'A Two-Component Solar Cycle', Solar Phys. 131, 187.
Lepping, R. P., Burlaga, L. F., Szabo, A., Ogilvie, K.W., Mish, W. H., Vassiliadis, D., Lazarus, A. J., Steinberg, J. T., Farrugia, C. J., Janoo, L. J. and Mariani, F.: 1997, 'The Wind Magnetic Cloud and Events of October 18–20, 1995: Interplanetary Properties and Triggers for Geomagnetic Activity', J. Geophys. Res. 102, 14049.
Marubashi, K.: 1986, 'Structure of the InterplanetaryMagnetic Clouds and Their Solar Origins', Adv. Space Res. 6 (6), 335.
Newell, P. T., Meng, C.-I. and Wing, S.: 1988, 'Relation to Solar Activity of Intense Aurorae in Sunlight and Darkness', Nature 393, 342.
Odstrcil, D.: 1998, 'Numerical Simulation of Interplanetary Plasma Clouds Propagating Along the Heliospheric Plasma Sheath', Astrophys. Letters Commun., in press.
Parker, E. N.: 1958, 'Interaction of Solar Wind with the Geomagnetic Field', Phys. Fluids 1, 171.
Perreault, P. and Akasofu, S.-I.: 1978, 'A Study of Geomagnetic Storms', J. Roy. Astron. Sci. 54, 547.
Phillips, J. L., Balogh, A., Bame, S. J., Goldstein, B. E., Gosling, J. T., Hoeksema, J. T., McComas, D. J., Neugebauer, M., Sheeley, N. R. and Yang, Y. M.: 1994, 'Ulysses at 500 South: Constant Immersion in the High-Speed Solar Wind', Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 1105.
Russell, C. T.: 1972, 'The Configuration of the Magnetosphere', in E. R. Dyer (ed.), Critical Prob. Magnet. Phys., Nat. Acad. Sci., Washington D.C., p. 1.
Russell, C. T. and McPherron, R. L.: 1973, 'Semiannual Variation of Geomagnetic Activity', J. Geophys. Res. 78, 92.
Sheeley, N. R., Jr., Harvey, J. W. and Feldman, W. C.: 1976, 'Coronal Holes, Solar Wind Streams and Recurrent Geomagnetic Disturbances, 1973–1976', Solar Phys. 49, 271.
Smith, E. J. and Sonett, C. P.: 1976, 'The August 1972 Solar Terrestrial Events: Interplanetary Magnetic Field Observations', Space Sci. Rev. 19, 661.
Smith, E. J. and Wolf, J. W.: 1976, 'Observations of Interaction Regions and Corotating Shocks between One and Five AU: Pioneers 10 and 11', Geophys. Res. Lett. 3, 137.
Smith, E. J., Balogh, A., Neugebauer, M. and McComas, D.: 1995, 'Ulysses Observations of Alfvén Waves in the Southward Northern Solar Hemisphere', Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 3381.
Southwood, D. J.: 1974, 'Some Features of Field-Line Resonance in the Magnetosphere', Planetary Space Sci. 22, 483.
Thorne, R.M. and Tsurutani, B. T.: 1991, 'Wave-Particle Interactions in theMagnetopause Boundary Layer', in T. Chang et al. (eds), Physics of Space Plasmas (1990), Sei Publ. Inc., Cambridge,MA, p. 119.
Timothy, A. F., Krieger, A. S. and Vaiana, G. S.: 1975, 'The Structure and Evolution of Coronal Holes', Solar Phys. 42, 135.
Tsurutani, B. T. and Gonzalez, W. D.: 1987, 'The Cause of High Intensity Long-Duration Continuous AE Activity (HILDCAAs): Interplanetary Alfvén Waves Trains', Planetary Space Sci. 35, 405.
Tsurutani, B. T. and Thorne, R. M.: 1982, 'Diffusion Processes in the Magnetopause Boundary Layer', Geophys. Res. Lett. 9, 1247.
Tsurutani, B. T. and Gonzalez, W. D.: 1995a, 'The Future of Geomagnetic Storm Predictions: Implications from Recent Solar and Interplanetary Observations', J. Atmospheric Terrest. Phys. 57, 1369.
Tsurutani, B. T. and Gonzalez, W. D.: 1995b, 'The Efficiency of "Viscous Interaction" between the Solar Wind and the Magnetosphere During Intense Northward IMF Events', Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 663.
Tsurutani, B. T. and Gonzalez, W. D.: 1997, 'The interplanetary Causes of Magnetic Storms: A Review', in B. T. Tsurutani, W. D. Gonzalez and Y. Kamide (eds), Magnetic Storms, Amer. Geophys. Union Press, Washington D.C., Mon. Ser. 98, 1997, p. 77.
Tsurutani, B. T., Russell, C. T., King, J. H., Zwickl, R. J. and Lin, R. P.: 1984, 'A Kinky Heliospheric Current Sheath: Causes of the CDAW6 Substorms', Geophys. Res. Lett. 11, 339.
Tsurutani, B. T., Gonzalez, W. D., Tang, F., Akasofu, S.-I. and Smith, E. J.: 1988a, 'Origin of Interplanetary Southward Magnetic Fields Responsible for Major Magnetic Storms Near Solar Maximum (1978–1979)', J. Geophys. Res. 93, 8519.
Tsurutani, B. T., Goldstein, B. E., Gonzalez, W. D. and Tang, F.: 1988b, 'Comment on "A New Method of Forecasting Geomagnetic Activity and Proton Showers", by A. Hewish and P. J. Duffet-Smith', Planetary Space Sci. 36, 205.
Tsurutani, B. T., Gould, T., Goldstein, B. E., Gonzalez, W. D. and Sugiura, M.: 1990, 'Interplanetary Alfvén Waves and Auroral Substorm Activity: IMP-8', J. Geophys. Res. 95, 2241.
Tsurutani, B. T., Gonzalez, W. D., Tang, F., Lee, Y. T., Okada, M., and Park, D.: 1992, 'Reply to L. J. Lanzerotti: SolarWind Ram Pressure Corrections and an Estimation of the Efficiency of Viscous Interaction', Geophys. Res. Lett. 19, 1993.
Tsurutani, B. T., Ho, C. M., Smith, E. J., Neugebauer, M., Goldstein, B. E., Mok, J. S., Arballo, J. K., Balogh, A., Southwood, D. J. and Feldman, W. C.: 1994, 'The Relationship between Interplanetary Discontinuities and Alfvén Waves: Ulysses Observations', Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 2267.
Tsurutani, B. T., Ho, C.M., Arballo, J. K., Goldstein, B. E. and Balogh, A.: 1995a, 'Large Amplitude IMF Fluctuations in Corotating Interaction Regions: Ulysses at Midlatitudes', Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 3397.
Tsurutani, B. T., Gonzalez, W. D., Gonzalez, A. L. C., Tang, F., Arballo, J. K. and Okada, M.: 1995b, 'Interplanetary original of Geomagnetic Activity in the Declining Phase of the Solar Cycle', J. Geophys. Res. 100, 21717.
Tsurutani, B. T., Goldstein, B. E., Ho, C.M., Neugebauer, M., Smith, E. J., Balogh, A. and Feldman, W. C.: 1996, 'Interplanetary Discontinuities and Alfvén Waves at High Heliographic Latitudes: Ulysses', J. Geophys. Res. 101, 11027.
Tsurutani, B. T., Lakhina, G. S., Ho, C.M., Arballo, J. K., Galvan, G., Boonsiriseth, A., Pickett, J. S., Gumett, D. A., Peterson, W. K. and Thorne, R. M.: 1998, 'Broadband Plasma Waves Observed in the Polar Cap Boundary Layer', J. Geophys. Res. 103, in press.
Tsurutani, B. T., Kamide, Y., Gonzalez, W. D. and Lepping, R. P.: 1999a, 'Interplanetary Causes of Great and Superintense Magnetic Storms', Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, in press.
Tsurutani, B. T., Gonzalez, W. D., Thorne, R. M. and Kamide, Y.: 1999b, 'Comments on "Relation to Solar Activity of Intense Aurorae in Sunlight and Darkness" by T. T. Newell, C.-I. Meng and S. Wing', Nature, submitted.
Vandas, M., Fischer, S., Pclant, P. and Geranios, A.: 1993, 'Spheroidal Models of Magnetic Clouds and Their Comparison with Spacecraft Measurement', J. Geophys. Res. 98, 11467.
Vandas, M., Fischer, S., Dryer, M., Smith, Z. and Detman, T.: 1998, 'Propagation of a Spheromak 2. Three-Dimensional Structure of a Spheromak', J. Geophys. Res. 103, 23717.
Weiss, L. A., Reiff, P. H., Moses, J. J. and Moore, B. D.: 1992, Energy Dissipation in Substorms, ESA SP-335, p. 309.
Winterhalter, D., Smith, E. J., Burton, M. E., Murphy, N. and McComas, D. J.: 1994, 'The Heliospheric Plasma Sheet', J. Geophys. Res. 99, 6667.
Zwan, B. J. and Wolf, R. A.: 1976, 'Depletion of the SolarWind Plasma Near a Planetary Boundary', J. Geophys. Res. 81, 1636.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gonzalez, W.D., Tsurutani, B.T. & Clúa de Gonzalez, A.L. Interplanetary origin of geomagnetic storms. Space Science Reviews 88, 529–562 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005160129098
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005160129098