Abstract
Proteases are classified into six distinct classes (cysteine, serine, threonine, aspartic, glutamic, and metalloproteases) on the basis of catalytic mechanism. The cellular control of protein quality senses misfolded or damaged proteins principally by selective ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and non-selective autophagy-lysosome pathway. The two pathways do not only maintain cell homeostasis physiologically, but also mediate necrosis and apoptosis pathologically. Proteasomes are threonine proteases, whereas cathepsins are lysosomal aspartic proteases. Calpains are non-lysosomal cysteine proteases and calcium-dependent papain-like enzyme. Calpains and cathepsins are involved in the neuronal necrosis, which are accidental cell death. Necrosis is featured by the disruption of plasma membranes and lysosomes, the loss of ATP and ribosomes, the lysis of cell and nucleus, and the caspase-independent DNA fragmentation. On the other hand, caspases are cysteine endoproteases and mediate neuronal cell death such as apoptosis and pyroptosis, which are programmed cell death. In the central nervous system, necroptosis, ferroptosis and autophagic cell death are also classified into programmed cell death. Neuronal apoptosis is characterized by cell shrinkage, plasma membrane blebbing, karyorrhexis, chromatin condensation, and DNA fragmentation. Necroptosis and pyroptosis are necrotic and lytic forms of programmed cell death, respectively. Although autophagy is involved in cell survival, it fails to maintain cellular homeostasis, resulting in autophagic cell death. Ferroptosis is induced by reactive oxygen species in excitotoxicity of glutamate and ischemia-reperfusion. Apoptosis and pyroptosis are dependent on caspase-3 and caspase-1, respectively. Autophagic cell death and necroptosis are dependent on calpain and cathepsin, respectively, but independent of caspase. Although apoptosis has been defined by the absence of morphological features of necrosis, the two deaths are both parts of a continuum. The intracellular proteases do not only maintain cell homeostasis but also regulate neuronal maturation during the development of embryonic brain. Furthermore, neurodegenerative diseases are caused by the impairment of quality control mechanisms for a proper folding and function of protein.
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Abbreviations
- AA:
-
Arachidonic acid
- Aβ:
-
Amyloid β
- ACD:
-
Autophagic cell death
- AD:
-
Alzheimer’s disease
- AIF:
-
Apoptosis-inducing factor
- ALP:
-
Autophagy–lysosome pathway
- ALS:
-
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
- APP:
-
Amyloid precursor protein
- ASC:
-
Apoptosis specific-like adaptor protein
- Atg:
-
Autophagy-related genes
- AVs:
-
Autophagic vacuoles
- [Ca2+]i:
-
Intracellular calcium level
- CARD:
-
Caspase recruitment domain
- CJD:
-
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
- CMA:
-
Chaperone-mediated autophagy
- CNS:
-
Central nervous system
- CRTH2:
-
Chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on T-helper type 2 cells
- CTX :
-
Cerebral cortex
- COX:
-
Cyclooxygenase
- CycPGs:
-
Cyclopentenone prostaglandins
- Cyt:
-
Cytochrome
- DAMP:
-
Danger-associated molecular patterns
- DISC:
-
Death-inducing signaling complex
- ER:
-
Endoplasmic reticulum
- ERK:
-
Extracellular signal-regulated kinase
- FADD:
-
Fas-associated death domain
- GPX4:
-
Glutathione peroxidase-4
- GSH:
-
Glutathione
- HD:
-
Huntington’s disease
- HPC:
-
Hippocampus
- JNK:
-
c-Jun N2-terminal kinase
- LOX:
-
Lipoxygenase
- L-VDCC:
-
L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels
- MAPK:
-
Mitogen-activated protein kinase
- MCA:
-
Middle cerebral artery
- mTOR:
-
Mammalian target of rapamycin
- MLKL:
-
Mixed-lineage kinase domain-like protein
- MPTP:
-
Mitochondrial permeability transition pore
- NFTs:
-
Neurofibrillary tangles
- NGF:
-
Nerve growth factor
- NLR:
-
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor
- NOX:
-
NADPH oxygenase
- NTRs:
-
Neurotrophic receptors
- PAMP:
-
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
- PARP:
-
Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase
- PCD:
-
Programmed cell death
- PD:
-
Parkinson’s disease
- PI:
-
Propidium iodide
- PI3K:
-
Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
- PPARγ:
-
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ
- PrPC :
-
Cellular prion protein
- PrPSc :
-
Scrapie prion protein
- PRRs:
-
Pattern-recognition receptors
- PS:
-
Phosphatidylserine
- PUMA:
-
p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis
- ROS:
-
Reactive oxygen species
- RIP:
-
Receptor-interacting protein
- SOD:
-
Superoxide dismutase
- sPLA2 :
-
Secreted phospholipase A2
- STR:
-
Striatum
- TNF-α:
-
Tumor necrosis factor α
- TRAIL:
-
TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand
- ULK1:
-
Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase1
- UPP:
-
Ubiquitin–proteasome pathway
- UPR:
-
Unfolded protein response
- VSC:
-
Ventral spinal cord
- 15d-PGJ2 :
-
15-deoxy-Δ12,14 prostaglandin J2
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The work presented in the submitted manuscript was funded by Grant-in-Aid 17K08327 from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan.
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Yagami, T., Yamamoto, Y. & Koma, H. Pathophysiological Roles of Intracellular Proteases in Neuronal Development and Neurological Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 56, 3090–3112 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-018-1277-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-018-1277-4