Abstract
This paper is an introduction to volume 56 of the Space Science Series of ISSI, “From disks to planets—the making of planets and their proto-atmospheres”, a key subject in our quest for the origins and evolutionary paths of planets, and for the causes of their diversity. Indeed, as exoplanet discoveries progressively accumulated and their characterization made spectacular progress, it became evident that the diversity of observed exoplanets can in no way be reduced to the two classes of planets that we are used to identify in the solar system, namely terrestrial planets and gas or ice giants: the exoplanet reality is just much broader. This fact is no doubt the result of the exceptional diversity of the evolutionary paths linking planetary systems as a whole as well as individual exoplanets and their proto-atmospheres to their parent circumstellar disks: this diversity and its causes are exactly what this paper explores. For each of the main phases of the formation and evolution of planetary systems and of individual planets, we summarize what we believe we understand and what are the important open questions needing further in-depth examination, and offer some suggestions on ways towards solutions.
We start with the formation mechanisms of circumstellar disks, with their gas and disk components in which chemical composition plays a very important role in planet formation. We summarize how dust accretion within the disk generates planet cores, while gas accretion on these cores can lead to the diversity of their fluid envelopes. The temporal evolution of the parent disk itself, and its final dissipation, put strong constraints on how and how far planetary formation can proceed. The radiation output of the central star also plays an important role in this whole story. This early phase of planet evolution, from disk formation to dissipation, is characterized by a co-evolution of the disk and its daughter planets. During this co-evolution, planets and their protoatmospheres not only grow, but they also migrate radially as a result of their interaction with the disk, thus moving progressively from their distance of formation to their final location. The formation of planetary fluid envelopes (proto-atmospheres and oceans), is an essential product of this planet formation scenario which strongly constrains their possible evolution towards habitability. We discuss the effects of the initial conditions in the disk, of the location, size and mass of the planetary core, of the disk lifetime and of the radiation output and activity of the central star, on the formation of these envelopes and on their relative extensions with respect to the planet core. Overall, a fraction of the planets retain the primary proto-atmosphere they initially accreted from the gas disk. For those which lose it in this early evolution, outgassing of volatiles from the planetary core and mantle, together with some contributions of volatiles from colliding bodies, give them a chance to form a “secondary” atmosphere, like that of our own Earth.
When the disk finally dissipates, usually before 10 Million years of age, it leaves us with the combination of a planetary system and a debris disk, each with a specific radial distribution with respect to their parent star(s). Whereas the dynamics of protoplanetary disks is dominated by gas-solid dynamical coupling, debris disks are dominated by gravitational dynamics acting on diverse families of planetesimals. Solid-body collisions between them and giant impacts on young planetary surfaces generate a new population of gas and dust in those disks. Synergies between solar system and exoplanet studies are particularly fruitful and need to be stimulated even more, because they give access to different and complementary components of debris disks: whereas the different families of planetesimals can be extensively studied in the solar system, they remain unobserved in exoplanet systems. But, in those systems, long-wavelength telescopic observations of dust provide a wealth of indirect information about the unobserved population of planetesimals. Promising progress is being currently made to observe the gas component as well, using millimetre and sub-millimetre giant radio interferometers.
Within planetary systems themselves, individual planets are the assembly of a solid body and a fluid envelope, including their planetary atmosphere when there is one. Their characteristics range from terrestrial planets through sub-Neptunes and Neptunes and to gas giants, each type covering most of the orbital distances probed by present-day techniques. With the continuous progress in detection and characterization techniques and the advent of major providers of new data like the Kepler mission, the architecture of these planetary systems can be studied more and more accurately in a statistically meaningful sense and compared to the one of our own solar system, which does not appear to be an exceptional case. Finally, our understanding of exoplanets atmospheres has made spectacular advances recently using the occultation spectroscopy techniques implemented on the currently operating space and ground-based observing facilities.
The powerful new observing facilities planned for the near and more distant future will make it possible to address many of the most challenging current questions of the science of exoplanets and their systems. There is little doubt that, using this new generation of facilities, we will be able to reconstruct more and more accurately the complex evolutionary paths which link stellar genesis to the possible emergence of habitable worlds.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
S.M. Andrews, K.A. Rosenfeld, A.L. Kraus, D.J. Wilner, The mass dependence between protoplanetary disks and their stellar hosts. Astrophys. J. 771, 129–200 (2013)
R. Alexander, P.J. Armitage, Giant planet migration, disk evolution, and the origin of transitional disks. Astrophys. J. 704, 989–1001 (2009)
R. Alexander, I. Pascucci, Deserts and pile-ups in the distribution of exoplanets due to photoevaporative disc clearing. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 422, 82–86 (2012)
C.M.O’D. Alexander, R. Bowden, M.L. Fogel, K.T. Howard, C.D.K. Herd, N.R. Nittler, The provenances of asteroids, and their contributions to the volatile inventories of the terrestrial planets. Science 337, 721–723 (2012)
J.M. Alcalá, E. Covino, G. Tottres, M.F. Sterzik, M.J. Pfeiffer, R. Neuhäuser, High-resolution spectroscopy of ROSAT low-mass pre-main sequence stars in Orion. Astron. Astrophys. 353, 186–201 (2000)
Y. Alibert, C. Mordasini, W. Benz, Migration and giant planet formation. Astron. Astrophys. 417, L25–L28 (2004)
Y. Alibert, C. Mordasini, W. Benz, C. Winisdoerffer, Models of giant planet formation with migration and disc evolution. Astron. Astrophys. 434, 343–353 (2005a)
Y. Alibert, O. Mousis, C. Mordasini, W. Benz, New Jupiter and Saturn models meet observations. Astrophys. J. 626, L57–L60 (2005b)
Y. Alibert, I. Baraffe, W. Benz, G. Chabrier, C. Mordasini, C. Lovis, M. Mayor, F. Pepe, F. Bouchy, D. Queloz, S. Udry, Formation and structure of the three Neptune-mass planets system around HD 69830. Astron. Astrophys. 455, L25–L28 (2006)
Y. Alibert, C. Broeg, W. Benz, G. Wuchterl, O. Grasset, C. Sotin, C. Eiroa, Th. Henning, T. Herbst, L. Kaltenegger, A. Léger, R. Liseau, H. Lammer, C. Beichman, W. Danchi, M. Fridlund, J. Lunine, F. Paresce, A. Penny, A. Quirrenbach, H. Röttgering, F. Selsis, J. Schneider, D. Stam, G. Tinetti, G.J. White, Origin and formation of planetary systems. Astrobiology 10, 19–32 (2010)
S.M. Andrews, D.J. Wilner, A.M. Hughes, C. Qi, C.P. Dullemond, Protoplanetary disk structures in Ophiuchus. Astrophys. J. 700, 1502–1523 (2009)
G. Aresu, I. Kamp, R. Meijerink, P. Woitke, W.F. Thi, M. Spaans, X-ray impact on the protoplanetary disks around T Tauri stars. Astron. Astrophys. 526, A163 (2011). 6 pp.
S.A. Balbus, J.F. Hawley, A powerful local shear instability in weakly magnetized disks. I—Linear analysis. II—Nonlinear evolution. Astrophys. J. 376, 214–233 (1991)
S. Ballard, J.A. Johnson, The Kepler dichotomy among the M dwarfs: Half of systems contain five or more coplanar planets. Astrophys. J. 816, 66 (2016)
T.S. Barman, Q.M. Konopacky, B. Macintosh, C. Marois, Simultaneous detection of water, methane, and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere of exoplanet HR8799b. Astrophys. J. 804, 61 (2015). 10 pp.
T. Barclay, J.F. Rowe, J.J. Lissauer (the Kepler Science Team), A sub-Mercury-sized exoplanet. Nature 496, 252 (2013)
C. Baruteau, J.C.B. Papaloizou, Disk-planets interactions and the diversity of period ratios in Kepler’s multi-planetary systems. Astrophys. J. 778, A7 (2013). 15 pp.
C. Baruteau, A. Crida, S.-J. Paardekooper, F. Masset, J. Guilet, B. Bitsch, R. Nelson, W. Kley, J. Papaloizou, Planet-disk interactions and early evolution of planetary systems, in Protostars and Planets VI, ed. by H. Beuther, R.S. Kessen, C.P. Dullemond, T. Henning (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 2014), pp. 667–689
C. Baruteau, X. Bai, C. Mordasini, P. Molliere, Formation, orbital and internal evolutions of young planetary systems. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 77–124 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
J.L. Bean, E. Miller-Ricci Kempton, D. Homeier, A ground-based transmission spectrum of the super-Earth exoplanet GJ 1214b. Nature 468, 669–672 (2010)
R.H. Becker, R.N. Clayton, E.M. Galimov, H. Lammer, B. Marty, R.O. Pepin, R.O. Wieler, Isotopic signatures of volatiles in terrestrial planets. Space Sci. Rev. 106, 377–410 (2003)
T. Birnstiel, M. Fang, A. Johansen, Dust evolution and the formation of planetesimals. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 41–75 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
B. Bitsch, M. Lambrechts, A. Johansen, The growth of planets by pebble accretion in evolving protoplanetary discs. Astron. Astrophys. 582, A112 (2015a). 24 pp.
B. Bitsch, A. Johansen, M. Lambrechts, A. Morbidelli, The structure of protoplanetary discs around evolving young stars. Astron. Astrophys. 575, A28 (2015b). 17 pp.
V. Bourrier, A. Lecavelier des Etangs, 3D model of hydrogen atmospheric escape from HD 209458b and HD 189733b: Radiative blow-out and stellar wind interactions. Astron. Astrophys. 557, A124 (2013). 18 pp.
A.P. Boss, Rapid formation of outer giant planets by disk instability. Astrophys. J. 599, 577–581 (2003)
C. Broeg, A. Fortier, D. Ehrenreich (CHEOPS the CHEOPS Team), A transit photometry mission for ESA’s small mission programme. EPJ Web Conf. 47, 03005 (2013)
M. Brogi, I.A.G. Snellen, R.J. de Kok, S. Albrecht, J.L. Birkby, E.J.W. de Mooij, Detection of molecular absorption in the dayside of exoplanet 51 Pegasi b? Astrophys. J. 767, 27 (2013). 10 pp.
L.A. Buchhave, M. Bizzarro, D.W. Latham, D. Sasselov, W.D. Cochran, M. Endl, H. Isaacson, D. Juncher, G.W. Marcy, Three regimes of extrasolar planet radius inferred from host star metallicities. Nature 509, 593–595 (2014)
P. Caselli, C. Ceccarelli, Our astrochemical heritage. Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 20, A56 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00159-012-0056-x
P. Cubillos, E.V. Erkaev, I. Juvan, L. Fossati, C.P. Johnstone, H. Lammer, M. Lendl, P. Odert, K.G. Kislyakova, An overabundance of low-density Neptune-like planets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 466, 1868–1879 (2017)
K.-M. Dittkrist, C. Mordasini, H. Klahr, Y. Alibert, T. Henning, Impacts of planet migration models on planetary populations. Effects of saturation, cooling and stellar irradiation. Astron. Astrophys. 567, A121 (2014). 18 pp.
D. Deming, A. Wilkins, P.A. McCullough, J. Fortney, E. Agol, I. Dobbs-Dixon, N. Madhusudhan, N. Crouzet, J.-M. Desert, R.L. Gilliland, K. Haynes, H.A. Knutson, M. Line, Z. Magic, A.M. Mandell, S. Ranjan, D. Charbonneau, M. Clampin, S. Seager, A.P. Showman, Infrared transmission spectroscopy of the exoplanets HD 209458b and XO-1b using the wide field camera-3 on the Hubble Space Telescope. Astrophys. J. 774, 95 (2013). 17 pp.
D. Ehrenreich, A. Lecavelier Des Etangs, G. Hébrard, J.-M. Désert, A. Vidal-Madjar, J.C. McConnell, C.D. Parkinson, G.E. Ballester, R. Ferlet, New observations of the extended hydrogen exosphere of the extrasolar planet HD 209458b. Astron. Astrophys. 483, 933–937 (2008)
D. Ehrenreich, X. Bonfils, C. Lovis, X. Delfosse, T. Forveille, M. Mayor, V. Neves, N.C. Santos, S. Udry, D. Ségransan, Near-infrared transmission spectrum of the warm-Uranus GJ 3470b with the Wide Field Camera-3 on the Hubble Space Telescope. Astron. Astrophys. 570, A89 (2014). 24 pp.
D. Ehrenreich, V. Bourrier, P.J. Wheatley, A. Lecavelier Des Etangs, G. Hébrard, S. Udry, X. Bonfils, X. Delfosse, J.-M. Désert, D.K. Sing, A. Vidal-Madjar, A giant comet-like cloud of hydrogen escaping the warm Neptune-mass exoplanet GJ 436b. Nature 522, 459–461 (2015)
L.T. Elkins-Tanton, Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric growth for Earth and Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 271, 181–191 (2008)
L.T. Elkins-Tanton, Formation of water ocean on rocky planets. Astrophys. Space Sci. 332, 359–364 (2011)
T. Encrenaz, Water in the solar system. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 46, 57–87 (2008)
M. Fang, J.S. Kim, R. van Boekel, A. Sicilia-Aguilar, T. Henning, K. Flaherty, Young stellar objects in Lynds 1641: disks, accretion, and star formation history. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 207, 5 (2013). 39 pp.
D. Fedele, M.E. van den Ancker, T. Henning, R. Jayawardhana, J.M. Oliveira, Timescale of mass accretion in pre-main-sequence stars. Astron. Astrophys. 510, A72 (2010). 7 pp.
D.A. Fischer, J. Valenti, The planet-metallicity correlation. Astrophys. J. 622, 1102–1117 (2005)
M. Fischer-Gödde, T. Kleine, Ruthenium isotopic evidence for an inner solar system origin of the late veneer. Nature 541, 525–527 (2017)
J.J. Fortney, K. Lodders, M.S. Marley, R.S. Freedman, A unified theory for the atmospheres of the hot and very hot Jupiters: two classes of irradiated atmospheres. Astrophys. J. 678, 1419–1435 (2008)
L. Fossati, S. Bagnulo, A. Elmasli, C.A. Haswell, S. Holmes, O. Kochukhov, E.L. Shkolnik, D.V. Shulyak, D. Bohlender, B. Albayrak, C. Froning, L. Hebb, A detailed spectropolarimetric analysis of the planet-hosting star WASP-12. Astrophys. J. 720, 872–886 (2010)
L. Fossati, N.V. Erkaev, H. Lammer, P.E. Cubillos, P. Odert, I. Juvan, K.G. Kislyakova, M. Lendl, D. Kubyshkina, S.J. Bauer, Aeronomical constraints to the minimum mass and maximum radius of hot low-mass planets. Astron. Astrophys. 598, A90 (2017). 9 pp.
F. Fressin, G. Torres, D. Charbonneau, S.T. Bryson, J. Christiansen, C.D. Dressing, J.M. Jenkins, L.M. Walkowicz, N.M. Batalha, The false positive rate of Kepler and the occurrence of planets. Astrophys. J. 766, 81 (2013). 20 pp.
M. Fridlund, A. Hatzes, R. Liseau, The way forward. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 349–372 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
C. Gammie, Layered accretion in T Tauri disks. Astrophys. J. 457, 355–362 (1996)
U. Gorti, D. Hollenbach, C.P. Dullemond, The impact of dust evolution and photoevaporation on disk dispersal. Astrophys. J. 804, A29 (2015). 21 pp.
U. Gorti, R. Liseau, Z. Sandor, C. Clarke, Disk dispersal: theoretical understanding and observational constraints. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 125–152 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
K.E. Haisch Jr., E.A. Lada, C.J. Lada, Disk frequencies and lifetimes in young clusters. Astrophys. J. 553, L153–L156 (2001)
K. Hamano, Y. Abe, H. Genda, Emergence of two types of terrestrial planet on solidification of magma ocean. Nature 497, 607–610 (2013)
B.M.S. Hansen, N. Murray, Testing in-situ assembly with the Kepler planet candidate sample. Astrophys. J. 775, 53 (2013). 17 pp.
L. Hartmann, Accretion Processes in Star Formation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009)
A.R. Howe, A.S. Burrows, Theoretical transit spectra for GJ 1214b and other “super-Earths”. Astrophys. J. 756, 176 (2012). 14 pp.
C.A. Haswell, L. Fossati, T. Ayres, K. France, C.S. Froning, S. Holmes, U.C. Kolb, R. Busuttil, R.A. Street, L. Hebb, A. Collier Cameron, B. Enoch, V. Burwitz, J. Rodriguez, R.G. West, D. Pollacco, P.J. Wheatley, A. Carter, Near-ultraviolet absorption, chromospheric activity, and star-planet interactions in the WASP-12 system. Astrophys. J. 760, A9 (2012). 23 pp.
A. Hatzes, The architecture of exoplanet systems. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 267–283 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
C. Hayashi, Structure of the solar nebula, growth and decay of magnetic fields and effects of magnetic and turbulent viscosities on the nebula. Prog. Theor. Phys. Suppl. 70, 35–53 (1981)
T. Henning, D. Semenov, Chemistry in protoplanetary disks. Chem. Rev. 113, 9016–9042 (2013)
T. Henning, G. Meeus, in Physical Processes in Circumstellar Disks Around Young Stars, ed. by P.J.V. Grady (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 2011), p. 114
H.D. Holland, The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984). 598 pp.
I. Hubeny, A. Burrows, D. Sudarsky, A possible bifurcation in atmospheres of strongly irradiated stars and planets. Astrophys. J. 594, 1011–1018 (2003)
S. Ida, D.N.C. Lin, Toward a deterministic model of planetary formation. II. The formation and retention of gas giant planets around stars with a range of metallicities. Astrophys. J. 616, 567–572 (2004)
M. Ikoma, K. Nakazawa, H. Emori, Formation of giant planets: dependences on core accretion rate and grain opacity. Astrophys. J. 537, 1013–1025 (2000)
M. Ikoma, Y. Hori, In-situ accretion of hydrogen-rich atmospheres on short-period super-Earths: implications for the Kepler-11 planets. Astrophys. J. 753, A66 (2012). 6 pp.
M. Ilgner, Th. Henning, A.J. Markwick, T.J. Millar, Transport processes and chemical evolution in steady accretion disk flows. Astron. Astrophys. 415, 643–659 (2004)
E. Jarosewich, Chemical analyses of meteorites: a compilation of stony and iron meteorite analyses. Meteoritics 25, 323–337 (1990)
C.P. Johnstone, M. Güdel, A. Stökl, H. Lammer, L. Tu, K.G. Kislyakova, T. Lüftinger, P. Odert, N.V. Erkaev, E.A. Dorfi, The evolution of stellar rotation and the hydrogen atmospheres of habitable-zone terrestrial planets. Astrophys. J. Lett. 815, A12 (2015). 6 pp.
I. Kant, Universal Natural Theory and Theory of Heaven (1755)
J.F. Kasting, D.H. Eggler, S.P. Raeburn, Mantle redox evolution and the case for a reduced Archean atmosphere. J. Geol. 101, 245–257 (1993)
K.G. Kislyakova, M. Holmström, H. Lammer, P. Odert Petra, M.L. Khodachenko, Magnetic moment and plasma environment of HD 209458b as determined from \(\mbox{Ly}\alpha\) observations. Science 346, 981–984 (2014)
W. Kley, R.P. Nelson, Planet-disk interaction and orbital evolution. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 50, 211–249 (2012)
H.A. Knutson, D. Charbonneau, L.E. Allen, A. Burrows, S.T. Megeath, The 3.6–8.0 μm broadband emission spectrum of HD 209458b: evidence for an atmospheric temperature inversion. Astrophys. J. 673, 526–531 (2008)
H.A. Knutson, A.W. Howard, H. Isaacson, A correlation between stellar activity and hot Jupiter emission spectra. Astrophys. J. 720, 1569–1576 (2010)
R.J. de Kok, M. Brogi, I.A.G. Snellen, J. Birkby, S. Albrecht, E.J.W. de Mooij, Detection of carbon monoxide in the high-resolution day-side spectrum of HD 189733b. Astron. Astrophys. 554, A82 (2013). 9 pp.
J.R. Kulow, K. France, J. Linsky, L.R.O. Parker, \(\mbox{Ly}\alpha\) transit spectroscopy and the neutral hydrogen tail of the hot Neptune GJ 436b. Astrophys. J. 786, A132 (2014). 9 pp.
M. Lambrechts, A. Johansen, Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion. Astron. Astrophys. 544, A32 (2012). 13 pp.
M. Lambrechts, A. Johansen, A. Morbidelli, Separating gas-giant and ice-giant planets by halting pebble accretion. Astron. Astrophys. 572, A35 (2014). 12 pp.
F. Lahuis, E.F. van Dishoeck, A.C.A. Boogert, K.M. Pontoppidan, G.A. Blake, C.P. Dullemond, N.J.I.I. Evans, M.R. Hogerheijde, J.K. Jørgensen, J.E. Kessler-Silacci, C. Knez, Hot organic molecules toward a young low-mass star: a look at inner disk chemistry. Astrophys. J. 636, L145–L148 (2006)
H. Lammer, K.G. Kislyakova, P. Odert, M. Leitzinger, R. Schwarz, E. Pilat-Lohinger, Yu.N. Kulikov, M.L. Khodachenko, M. Güdel, A. Hanslmeier, Pathways to Earth-like atmospheres extreme ultraviolet (EUV)-powered escape of hydrogen-rich protoatmospheres. Orig. Life Evol. Biosph. 41, 503–522 (2011)
H. Lammer, A. Stökl, N.V. Erkaev, E. Dorfi, P. Odert, M. Güdel, Yu.N. Kulikov, K.G. Kislyakova, M. Leitzinger, Origin and loss of nebula-captured hydrogen envelopes from ‘sub’- to ‘super-Earths’ in the habitable zone of Sun-like stars. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 439, 3225–3238 (2014)
H. Lammer, N.V. Erkaev, L. Fossati, I. Juvan, P. Odert, P.E. Cubillos, E. Guenther, K.G. Kislyakova, C.P. Johnstone, T. Lüftinger, M. Güdel, Identifying the “true” radius of the sub-Neptunes CoRoT-24b by mass loss modelling. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 461, L62–L66 (2016)
T. Lebrun, H. Massol, E. Chassefiére, A. Davaille, E. Marcq, P. Sarda, F. Leblanc, G. Brandeis, Thermal evolution of an early magma ocean in interaction with the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., Planets 118, 1155–1176 (2013)
P.-S. Laplace. Exposition du Système du Monde (1796)
G. Lee, I. Doobs-Dixon, Ch. Helling, K. Bognar, P. Woitke, Dynamic mineral clouds on HD 189733b—I. 3D RHD with kinetic, non-equilibrium cloud formation. Astron. Astrophys. 594, A48 (2016)
D.N.C. Lin, J. Papaloizou, On the tidal interaction between protoplanets and the protoplanetary disk. III—Orbital migration of protoplanets. Astrophys. J. 309, 846–857 (1986)
D.N.C. Lin, P. Bodenheimer, D.C. Richardson, Orbital migration of the planetary companion of 51 Pegasi to its present location. Nature 380, 606–607 (1996)
J.J. Lissauer, D. Fabrycky, C. Daniel (the Kepler Science Team), A closely packed system of low-mass, low-density planets transiting Kepler-11. Nature 470, 53–58 (2011)
L.-G. Liu, The inception of the oceans and \(\mbox{CO}_{2}\)-atmosphere in the early history of the Earth. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 227, 179–184 (2004)
R. Luger, R. Barnes, E. Lopez, J. Fortney, B. Jackson, V. Meadows, Habitable evaporated cores: transforming mini-Neptunes into super-Earths in the habitable zones of M dwarfs. Astrobiology 15, 57–88 (2015)
N. Madhusudhan, S. Seager, High metallicity and non-equilibrium chemistry in the dayside atmosphere of hot-Neptune GJ 436b. Astrophys. J. 729, A41 (2011)
N. Madhusudhan, M.A. Amin, G.M. Kennedy, Toward chemical constraints on hot Jupiter migration. Astrophys. J. Lett. 794, L12 (2014). 5 pp.
N. Madhusudhan, M. Agundez Chico, J.I. Moses, Y. Hu, Exoplanetary atmospheres—chemistry, formation conditions, and habitability. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 285–348 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
G.W. Marcy, H. Isaacson, A.W. Howard (the Kepler Science Team), Masses, radii, and orbits of small Kepler planets: the transition from gaseous to rocky planets. Astrophys. J. Suppl. 210, 20 (2014). 70 pp.
B. Marty, The origins and concentrations of water, carbon, nitrogen and noble gases on Earth. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 313, 56–66 (2012)
H. Massol, K. Hamano, F. Tian, M. Ikoma, Y. Abe, E. Chassefière, A. Davaille, H. Genda, M. Güdel, Y. Hori, F. Leblanc, E. Marcq, P. Sarda, V.I. Shematovich, A. Stökl, H. Lammer, Formation and evolution of protoatmospheres. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 153–211 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
B.C. Matthews, A.V. Krivov, M.C. Wyatt, G. Bryden, C. Eiroa, Observations, modeling, and theory of debris disks, in Protostars and Planets, vol. VI (2014), pp. 521–544. https://doi.org/10.2458/azu_uapress_9780816531240-ch023
B.C. Matthews, J.J. Kavelaars, Insights into planet formation from debris disks. I. The solar system as an archetype for planetesimal evolution. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 213–230 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
M. Mayor, D. Queloz, A Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star. Nature 378, 355–359 (1995)
H. Mizuno, Formation of the giant planets. Prog. Theor. Phys. 64, 544–557 (1980)
S. Mohanty, J. Greaves, D. Mortlock, I. Pascucci, A. Scholz, M. Thompson, D. Apai, G. Lodato, D. Looper, Protoplanetary disk masses from stars to brown dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 773, 168 (2013). 33 pp.
A. Morbidelli, J. Chambers, J.I. Lunine, J.M. Petit, F. Robert, G.B. Valsecchi, K.E. Cyr, Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 35, 1309–1320 (2000)
A. Morbidelli, D. Nesvorný, Dynamics of pebbles in the vicinity of a growing planetary embryo: hydro-dynamical simulations. Astron. Astrophys. 546, A18 (2012). 7 pp.
C. Mordasini, Y. Alibert, W. Benz, Extrasolar planet population synthesis I: method, formation tracks and mass-distance distribution. Astron. Astrophys. 501, 1139–1160 (2009a)
C. Mordasini, Y. Alibert, W. Benz, D. Naef, Extrasolar planet population synthesis II: statistical comparison with observation. Astron. Astrophys. 501, 1161–1184 (2009b)
C. Mordasini, Y. Alibert, C. Georgy, K.-M. Dittkrist, H. Klahr, T. Henning, Characterization of exoplanets from their formation. II. The planetary mass-radius relationship. Astron. Astrophys. 547, A112 (2012). 36 pp.
G.D. Mulders, I. Pascucci, A. Dániel, An increase in the mass of planetary systems around lower-mass stars. Astrophys. J. 814, 130 (2015a). 10 pp.
G.D. Mulders, I. Pascucci, A. Dániel, A stellar-mass-dependent drop in planet occurrence rates. Astrophys. J. 798, 112 (2015b). 18 pp.
M.J. Mumma, S.B. Charnley, The chemical composition of comets—emerging taxonomies and natal heritage. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 49, 471–524 (2011)
J.R. Najita, M. Ádámkovics, A.E. Glassgold, Formation of organic molecules and water in warm disk atmospheres. Astrophys. J. 743, A147 (2011). 18 pp.
K.I. Öberg, R. Murray-Clay, E. Bergin, A. Edwin, The effects of snowlines on C/O in planetary atmospheres. Astrophys. J. Lett. 743, L16 (2011). 5 pp.
D.P. O’Brien, K.J. Walsh, A. Morbidelli, S.N. Raymond, Water delivery and giant impacts in the ‘Grand Tack’ scenario. Icarus 239, 74–84 (2014)
P. Odert, H. Lammer, N.V. Erkaev, A. Nikolaou, H.I.M. Lichtenegger, C.P. Johnstone, K.G. Kislyakova, M. Leitzinger, N. Tosi, Escape and fractionation of volatiles and noble gases from Mars-sized planetary embryos and growing protoplanets. Icarus (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.031
C.W. Ormel, H.H. Klahr, The effect of gas drag on the growth of protoplanets. Analytical expressions for the accretion of small bodies in laminar disks. Astron. Astrophys. 530, A43 (2010). 15 pp.
J.E. Owen, S. Mohanty, Habitability of terrestrial-mass planets in the HZ of M Dwarfs. I. H/He-dominated atmospheres. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 459(4), 4088–4108 (2016)
J.E. Owen, Y. Wu, Atmospheres of low-mass planets: the “Boil-off”. Astrophys. J. 817, 107 (2016). 14 pp.
S.-J. Paardekooper, C. Baruteau, F. Meru, Numerical convergence in self-gravitating disc simulations: initial conditions and edge effects. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 416, L65–L69 (2011)
O. Paníc, W.S. Holland, M.C. Wyatt, G.M. Kennedy, B.C. Matthews, J.F. Lestrade, B. Sibthorpe, J.S. Greaves, J.P. Marshall, N.M. Phillips, J. Tottle, First results of the SONS survey: submillimetre detections of debris discs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 435, 1037–1046 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stt1293
H. Parviainen, D. Gandolfi, M. Deleuil (the CoRoT Team), Transiting exoplanets from the CoRoT space mission. XXV. CoRoT-27b: a massive and dense planet on a short-period orbit. Astron. Astrophys. 562, A140 (2014). 12 pp.
I. Pascucci, D. Apai, K. Luhman, Th. Henning, J. Bouwman, M.R. Meyer, F. Lahuis, A. Natta, The different evolutions of gas and dust in disks around Sun-like and cool stars. Astrophys. J. 696, 143–159 (2009)
I. Pascucci, G. Herczeg, J.S. Carr, S. Bruderer, The atomic and molecular content of disks around very low-mass stars and brown dwarfs. Astrophys. J. 779, 178 (2013). 13 pp.
C. Petrovich, R. Malhotra, T. Scott, Planets near mean-motion resonances. Astrophys. J. 770, 24 (2013). 16 pp.
S. Pizzarello, Y. Huang, The deuterium enrichment of individual amino acids in carbonaceous meteorites: a case for the presolar distribution of biomolecule precursors. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 69, 599–605 (2005)
J.B. Pollack, O. Hubickyj, P. Bodenheimer, J.J. Lissauer, M. Podolak, Y. Greenzweig, Formation of the giant planets by concurrent accretion of solids and gas. Icarus 124, 62–85 (1996)
D. Porcelli, R.O. Pepin, Rare gas constraints on early Earth history, in Origin of the Earth and Moon, ed. by R.M. Canup, K. Richter (University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 2000), pp. 435–458
C. Rab, C. Baldovin-Saavedra, O. Dionatos, E. Vorobyov, M. Güdel, The gas disk: evolution and chemistry. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 3–40 (2016). ibid. (2017, this volume)
R.R. Rafikov, Atmospheres of protoplanetary cores: critical mass for nucleated instability. Astrophys. J. 648, 666–682 (2006)
H. Rauer, C. Catala, C. Aerts (the PLATO Team), The PLATO 2.0 mission. Exp. Astron. 38, 249–330 (2014)
G.R. Ricker, S.W. Latham, R.K. Vanderspek (the TESS Team), The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS). Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 41, 193 (2009)
L.A. Rogers, P. Bodenheimer, J.J. Lissauer, S. Seager, Formation and structure of low-density exo-Neptunes. Astrophys. J. 738, 59 (2011). 16 pp.
L.A. Rogers, Most 1.6Earth-radius planets are not rocky. Astrophys. J. 801, 41 (2015). 13 pp.
G.P. Rosotti, B. Ercolano, J.E. Owen, P.J. Armitage, The interplay between X-ray photoevaporation and planet formation. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 430, 1392–1401 (2013)
J.F. Rowe, J.L. Coughlin, V. Antoci, T. Barclay, N.M. Batalha, W.J. Borucki, C.J. Burke, S.T. Bryson, D.A. Caldwell, J.R. Campbell, J.H. Catanzarite, J.L. Christiansen, W. Cochran, R.L. Gilliland, F.R. Girouard, M.R. Haas, K.G. Hełminiak, C.E. Henze, K.L. Hoffman, S.B. Howell, D. Huber, R.C. Hunter, H. Jang-Condell, J.M. Jenkins, T.C. Klaus, D.W. Latham, J. Li, J.J. Lissauer, S.D. McCauliff, R.L. Morris, F. Mullally, A. Ofir, B. Quarles, E. Quintana, A. Sabale, S. Seader, A. Shporer, J.C. Smith, J.H. Steffen, M. Still, P. Tenenbaum, S.E. Thompson, J.D. Twicken, C. Van Laerhoven, A. Wolfgang, K.A. Zamudio, Planetary candidates observed by Kepler V: planet sample from Q1–Q12 (36 Months). Astrophys. J. Suppl. 217, 16 (2015). 22 pp.
V. Safronov, Evolution of the protoplanetary cloud and formation of the Earth and planets (English version 1972)
N.C. Santos, G. Israelian, M. Mayor, New extra-solar planets: the metallicity distribution revised, in Planetary Systems in the Universe—Observation and Evolution, ed. by A. Penny, P. Artymovicz, A.-M. Lagrange, S. Russel. Proceedings IAU Symposium, vol. 202 (2004), pp. 118–120
B.M. Shustov, E. Mikhail, D. Bisikalo, V. de Castro, A.-I. Gómez, The World Space Observatory—UV project as a tool for exoplanet science, in Characterizing Stellar and Exoplanetary Environments. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol. 411 (Springer, Cham, 2015), pp. 275–287
A. Sicilia-Aguilar, L.W. Hartmann, G. Fürész, T. Henning, C. Dullemond, W. Brandner, High-resolution spectroscopy in Tr 37: gas accretion evolution in evolved dusty disks. Astron. J. 132, 2135–2155 (2006)
I.A.G. Snellen, R.J. de Kok, E.J.W. de Mooij, A. Simon, The orbital motion, absolute mass and high-altitude winds of exoplanet HD209458b. Nature 465, 1049–1051 (2010)
D.S. Spiegel, K. Silverio, A. Burrows, Can TiO explain thermal inversions in the upper atmospheres of irradiated giant planets? Astrophys. J. 699, 1487–1500 (2009)
S.W. Stahler, F. Palla, The Formation of Stars (Wiley, Weinheim, 2005)
D.J. Stevenson, Formation of the giant planets. Planet. Space Sci. 30, 755–764 (1982)
D.J. Stevenson, J.I. Lunine, Rapid formation of Jupiter by diffuse redistribution of water vapor in the solar nebula. Icarus 75, 146–155 (1988)
A. Stökl, E.A. Dorfi, H. Lammer, Hydrodynamic simulations of captured protoatmospheres around Earth-like planets. Astron. Astrophys. 576, A87 (2015). 11 pp.
E. Svedenborg, Opera philosophica et mineralia (1734)
H. Tanaka, T. Takeuchi, W.R. Ward, Three-dimensional interaction between a planet and an isothermal gaseous disk. I. Corotation and Lindblad torques and planet migration. Astrophys. J. 565, 1257–1274 (2002)
L. Tu, C.P. Johnstone, M. Güdel, H. Lammer, The extreme ultraviolet and X-ray Sun in time: high-energy evolutionary tracks of a solar-like star. Astron. Astrophys. 577, L3 (2015). 4 pp.
A. Vidal-Madjar, A. Lecavelier des Etangs, J.-M. Désert, G.E. Ballester, R. Ferlet, G. Hébrard, M. Mayor, An extended upper atmosphere around the extrasolar planet HD209458b. Nature 422, 143–146 (2003)
A. Vidal-Madjar, J.-M. Désert, A. Lecavelier des Etangs, G. Hébrard, G.E. Ballester, D. Ehrenreich, R. Ferlet, J.C. McConnell, M. Mayor, C.D. Parkinson, Detection of oxygen and carbon in the hydrodynamically escaping atmosphere of the extrasolar planet HD 209458b. Astrophys. J. Lett. 604, 69–72 (2004)
K.J. Walsh, A. Morbidelli, S.N. Raymond, D.P. O’Brien, A.M. Mandell, A low mass for Mars from Jupiter’s early gas-driven migration. Nature 475, 206–209 (2011)
J. Wang, D.A. Fischer, Revealing a universal planet-metallicity correlation for planets of different sizes around solar-type stars. Astron. J. 149, 14 (2015). 7 pp.
W.R. Ward, Protoplanet migration by nebula tides. Icarus 126, 261–281 (1997a)
W.R. Ward, Survival of planetary systems. Astrophys. J. 482, L211–L214 (1997b)
J.P. Williams, L.A. Cieza, Protoplanetary disks and their evolution. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 49, 67–117 (2011)
K. Willacy, H.H. Klahr, T.J. Millar, Th. Henning, Gas and grain chemistry in a protoplanetary disk. Astron. Astrophys. 338, 995–1005 (1998)
J.N. Winn, D.C. Fabrycky, The occurrence and architecture of exoplanetary systems. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 53, 409–447 (2015)
J.A. Wood, The chondrite types and their origins, in Chondrites and the Protoplanetary Disk, ed. by A.N. Krot, E.R.D. Scott, B. Reipurth. ASP Conference Series, vol. 341 (2005), pp. 953–971
R.D. Wordsworth, Atmospheric nitrogen evolution on Earth and Venus. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 447, 103–111 (2016)
G. Wuchterl, The critical mass for protoplanets revised—massive envelopes through convection. Icarus 106, 323–334 (1993)
M. Wyatt, A.P. Jackson, Insights into planet formation from debris disks. II. Giant impacts in extrasolar planetary systems. Space Sci. Rev. 205, 231–265 (2016a). ibid. (2017, this volume)
Acknowledgements
This brief introduction to the role of protoplanetary disks in planetary formation and evolution was conceived during the august 2014 joint ISSI-Beijing/ISSI workshop held in Beijing on “The Disk in Relation to the Formation of Planets and their Protoatmospheres”. HL and MB thank ISSI-Beijing for its much-appreciated hospitality during the workshop, and all the participants of the workshop and contributors to this special issue of Space Science Reviews and to the corresponding SSSI book for lively discussions and highly appreciated efforts. HL also thanks the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) NFN project S11601-N16 “Pathways to Habitability: From Disks to Stars, Planets and Life” and the related FWF NFN subprojects S11607-N16 “Particle/Radiative Interactions with Upper Atmospheres of Planetary Bodies Under Extreme Stellar Conditions”. We also thank three referees for their detailed suggestions and recommendations which helped us to improve considerably this introductory chapter, and Guest Editor Veerle Jasmin Serken for her patient and efficient handling of the review of this manuscript. Finally, HL thanks P. Cubillos and L. Fossati for discussions related to radius-mass relations of sub-Neptunes and observations.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
From Disks to Planets: The Making of Planets and Their Early Atmospheres
Edited by M. Blanc, G. Herczeg, H. Lammer, V. Sterken, W. Benz, S. Udry, R. Rodrigo and M. Falanga
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lammer, H., Blanc, M. From Disks to Planets: The Making of Planets and Their Early Atmospheres. An Introduction. Space Sci Rev 214, 60 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0433-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-017-0433-x