Abstract
Empirical evidence collected so far has revealed that the bilingual advantage cannot be reduced to a single component of the executive functioning, and point to the need to understand the effects of bilingual experience on cognition as influencing a wider family of mental processes, including, but not limited to, cognitive control. The present study aims to explore a relatively underinvestigated domain of bilingual cognitive processes, namely anticipation, through a series of different paradigms tapping proactive and reactive mechanisms at different levels of cognitive complexity and linguistic components. The sample included 25 adult bilinguals (\(26.5\, \pm \,7.8\) years) and 25 monolinguals (\(26.4\, \pm \, 7\) years) matched for age, gender, and non-verbal IQ. Participants were administered two experimental tasks: Attentional Network Task (ANT), and auditory picture-word identification task. Compared to monolinguals, bilinguals showed overall faster reaction times and reduced conflict effect on both the ANT and the picture-word identification task. In addition, associations between performances in the nonverbal and the verbal tasks support the role of the nonverbal monitoring component on verbal anticipation. Results are discussed in light of a dynamic interaction between proactive and reactive mechanisms of cognitive control.
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Appendix
Appendix
List of sentences and target words used with lexical information
Sentence | Target word | N letters | N syllables | Occurrence | Logarithmic frequency | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | |
#1 Il pittore appoggerà il dipinto sul | cavalletto | Binocolo | 10 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#1 The painter will place the painting on the | Easel | Binoculars | ||||||||
#2 Il pittore mostrerà il dipinto alla | Moglie | Foca | 6 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 18 | 0 | 2.22 | 0.95 |
#2 The painter will show the painting to the | Wife | Sea-lion | ||||||||
#3 Il ragazzo passerà i limoni alla | Donna | Mosca | 5 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 28 | 2 | 2.41 | 1.42 |
#3 The boy will pass the lemons to the | Woman | Fly | ||||||||
#4 Il ragazzo peserà i limoni sulla | Bilancia | Spazzola | 8 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#4 The boy will weigh the lemons on the | Scale | Brush | ||||||||
#5 La donna salverà i file sul | Dischetto | Trattore | 9 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#5 The woman will save the files on the | Floppy-disk | Tractor | ||||||||
#6 La donna invierà i file all’ | Uomo | Anno | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 20 | 92 | 2.27 | 2.91 |
#6 The woman will send the files to the | Man | Year | ||||||||
#7 L’uomo butterà la lattina nella | Pattumiera | Commissione | 10 | 11 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 9 | 0.95 | 1.95 |
#7 The man will throw the can in the | Trashcan | Commission | ||||||||
#8 L’uomo darà la lattina alla | Cameriera | Costruzione | 9 | 11 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0.95 | 1.42 |
#8 The man will give the can to the | Waitress | Construction | ||||||||
#9 Il barista lascerà cadere lo straccio sul | Pavimento | Fazzoletto | 9 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0.95 | 1.25 |
#9 The barman will let the rag fall on the | floor | handkerchief | ||||||||
#10 Il barista passerà il panno al | Cliente | Leone | 7 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
Sentence | Target word | N letters | N syllables | Occurrence | Logarithmic frequency | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | |
#10 The barman will pass the cloth to the | Client | Lion | ||||||||
#11 La donna appenderà il vestito all’ | Attaccapanni | Elicottero | 12 | 10 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#11 The woman will hang the dress on the | Hanger | Helicopter | ||||||||
#12 La donna presterà il vestito alla | Ragazza | Lumaca | 6 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 21 | 0 | 2.29 | 0.95 |
#12 The woman will lend the dress to the | Girl | Snail | ||||||||
#13 La donna dai capelli corti metterà la collana nella | Cassaforte | Banconota | 10 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#13 The short-haired woman will put the necklace in the | Safe | Banknote | ||||||||
#14 La donna dai capelli corti venderà la collana ad un’altra | Donna | Scimmia | 5 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 28 | 0 | 2.41 | 0.95 |
#14 The short-haired woman will sell the necklace to another | Woman | Monkey | ||||||||
#15 L’uomo installerà il programma sul | Computer | Balcone | 8 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 10 | 0 | 1.99 | 0.95 |
#15 The man will install the program on the | Computer | Balcony | ||||||||
#16 La donna metterà la tromba nella | Cassa | Vite | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1.25 | 0.95 |
#16 The woman will put the trumpet in the | Case | Screw | ||||||||
#17 La donna insegnerà a suonare la tromba al | Ragazzo | Delfino | 7 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 12 | 0 | 2.06 | 0.95 |
#17 The woman will teach how to play the trumpet to the | Boy | Dolphin | ||||||||
#18 L’uomo darà il programma alla | Donna | Scimmia | 5 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 28 | 0 | 2.41 | 0.95 |
#18 The man will give the program to the | Woman | Monkey | ||||||||
#19 La donna metterà il maglione nel | Cassetto | Divano | 8 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1.25 | 0.95 |
#19 The woman will put the sweater in the | Drawer | Couch | ||||||||
Sentence | Target word | N letters | N syllables | Occurrence | Logarithmic frequency | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | |
#20 La donna venderà il maglione al | Ragazzo | Cavallo | 7 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 12 | 0 | 2.06 | 0.95 |
#20 The woman will sell the sweater to the | Boy | Horse | ||||||||
#21 La donna sistemerà la scultura sopra il | Tavolo | Calice | 6 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 9 | 0 | 1.95 | 0.95 |
#21 The woman will set the sculpture over the | Table | Calyx | ||||||||
#22 La donna restituirà la scultura all’ | Uomo | Anno | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 20 | 92 | 2.27 | 2.91 |
#22 The woman will give back the sculpture to the | Man | Year | ||||||||
#23 L’uomo sposterà l’orsacchiotto sopra il | Divano | Retino | 6 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#23 The man will move the teddy bear on the | Couch | Fine net | ||||||||
#24 L’uomo regalerà l’orsacchiotto alla | Bambina | Pecora | 7 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 15 | 0 | 2.15 | 0.95 |
#24 The man will donate the teddy bear to the little | Girl | Sheep | ||||||||
#25 Piero collocherà i libri sopra lo | Scaffale | Steccato | 8 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#25 Peter will place the books over the | Shelf | Fence | ||||||||
#26 L’uomo leggerà i libri al | Bambino | Canguro | 7 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 19 | 0 | 2.25 | 0.95 |
#26 The man will read the books to the little | Boy | Kangaroo | ||||||||
#27 La donna sistemerà il neonato sul | Passeggino | Rubinetto | 10 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0.95 | 1.42 |
#27 The woman will set the newborn on the | Stroller | Tap | ||||||||
#28 La donna affiderà suo figlio al | Ragazzo | Pinguino | 8 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 12 | 0 | 2.06 | 0.95 |
#28 The woman will entrust her son to the | Boy | Penguin | ||||||||
#29 L”anziano artigiano appoggerà i colori sopra la | Mensola | Moneta | 7 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#29 The senior artisan will place the colors over the | Shelf | Coin | ||||||||
Sentence | Target word | N letters | N syllables | Occurrence | Logarithmic frequency | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | Congruent | Incongruent | |
#30 L’anziano artigiano passerà i colori al giovane | Assistente | Pappagallo | 10 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1.25 | 0.95 |
#30 The senior artisan will pass the colors to the young | Assistant | Parrot | ||||||||
#31 La donna spalmerà il burro sul | Pane | Fiore | 4 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 0 | 1.95 | 0.95 |
#31 The woman will spread the butter on the | Bread | Flower | ||||||||
#32 La donna passerà il burro al | Signore | Lombrico | 7 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 1.72 | 0.95 |
#32 The woman will pass the butter to the | Gentleman | Earthworm | ||||||||
#33 Il ragazzo appenderà il quadro con il | Chiodo | Tempo | 6 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 69 | 0.95 | 2.79 |
#33 The boy will hang the painting with the | Nail | Time | ||||||||
#34 Il ragazzo mostrerà il quadro alla | Mamma | Rana | 5 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 51 | 0 | 2.66 | 0.95 |
#34 The boy will show the painting to the | Mom | Frog | ||||||||
#35 La cameriera getterà l’hamburger nella | Spazzatura | Mongolfiera | 10 | 11 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
#35 The waitress will throw the hamburger in the | Trashcan | Aerostat | ||||||||
#36 La cameriera servirà l’hamburger al | Uomo | Pesce | 4 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 20 | 1 | 2.27 | 1.25 |
#36 The waitress will serve the hamburger to the | Man | Fish | ||||||||
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Desideri, L., Bonifacci, P. Verbal and Nonverbal Anticipatory Mechanisms in Bilinguals. J Psycholinguist Res 47, 719–739 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-017-9556-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-017-9556-1