Skip to main content

A Chronological History of X-Ray Astronomy Missions

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics

Abstract

In this chapter, we briefly review the history of X-ray astronomy through its missions. We follow a temporal development, from the first instruments onboard rockets and balloons to the most recent and complex space missions. We intend to provide the reader with detailed information and references on the many missions and instruments that have contributed to the success of the exploration of the X-ray universe. We have not included missions that are still operating, providing the worldwide community with high-quality observations. Specific chapters for these missions are included in a dedicated section of the handbook.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • D.J. Adams, B.A. Cooke, K. Evans, K.A. Pounds, Rocket observations of virgo XR-1. Nature 222, 757–759 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • I. Adler, J. Gerard, J. Trombka et al., in Apollo 15 – Preliminary Science Report, NASA SP-289, Chapter 17 (1972a)

    Google Scholar 

  • I. Adler, J. Trombka, J. Gerard et al., in Apollo 16 – Preliminary Science Report, NASA SP-315, Chapter 19 (1972b)

    Google Scholar 

  • I. Adler, R. Schmadebeck, J. Trombka et al., Space Sci. Instrum. 1, 305 (1975)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Agrawal, S. Biswas, G.S. Gokhale et al., Sudden changes in the intensity of high energy x-rays from sco X-1. Nature 224, 51–53 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Agrawal, S. Biswas, G.S. Gokhale et al., Energy spectra of several discrete x-ray sources in the 20–120 keV range. IAUS 37, 94–103 (1970a)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Agrawal, S. Biswas, G.S. Gokhale et al., The flattering of the x-ray spectrum of sco X-1 at energies beyond 40 keV. Ap&SS 10, 500–507 (1970b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Agrawal, V.S. Iyengar, M.A. Kalgaonkar et al., A balloon borne instrument for the study of cosmic X-rays. Nucl. Instrum. Methods 95, 29–37 (1971)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.R.P. Angel, R. Novick, P. vanden Bout, R. Wolff, Search for x-ray polarization in Sco X-1. Phys. Rev. Lett. 22, 861–865 (1969)

    Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Arnaud, R.F. Mushotzky, A dusty x-ray absorber in the perseus cluster? ApJ 501, 119 (1998)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Arnold, B. Ficht, E. Kendziorra et al., Ballonbeobachtungen des Crab im Röntgenbereich. MitAG 35, 223–223 (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  • S.I. Babichenko, D.A. Goganov, E.V. Dereguzov, N.I. Komyak, V.G. Kurt, B.S. Lozinskij, A.G. Nikolaev, V.A. Sklyankin, A.V. Shifrin, E.I. Moskalenko, E.K. Sheffer, Equipment for measuring X-ray emission of extraterrestrial sources. SSI 3, 311–323 (1977)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S.I. Babichenko, M.S. Burgin, S.M. Vojnakov et al., X-ray experiment onboard ASTRON space station. Kosmicheskie Issledovaniia 28, 587B (1990)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C. Barat et al., Nuclear Spectroscopy of Astrophysical Sources, ed. by G.H. Share, N. Gehrels (American Institute of Physics, New York, 1988), p. 395

    Google Scholar 

  • K. Bennet, COS-B: the highlights. Nucl. Phys. 14, 23–34 (1991)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J. Bleeker, Half a century of cosmic X-ray spectroscopy in the Netherlands: from zone plate to microcalorimeter, in 50 years astronomical X-ray spectroscopy in the Netherlands, 17–19 Jan, 2022 (Leiden, The Netherlands, 2022). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5866259

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Bleeker, F. Verbunt, From zone plate to microcalorimeter, in 50 years of cosmic X-ray spectroscopy at SRON, History of X-ray astronomy, Space instrumentation, X-ray spectrographs, vol. 84 (2013), p. 512

    Google Scholar 

  • J.A.M. Bleeker, J.J. Burger, A.J.M. Deerenberg et al., Balloon observation of the x-ray sources in the cygnus region in the energy band 20–130 keV. ApJ 147, 391–394 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.A.M. Bleeker, J.J. Burger, A.J.M. Deerenberg et al., Energy spectrum of diffuse primary x-rays up to 180 keV. Can. J. Phys. 46, S461–S465 (1968)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. Boella, R.C. Butler, G.C. Perola et al., BeppoSAX, the wide band mission for X-ray astronomy A&AS 122, 299–307 (1997a)

    Google Scholar 

  • G. Boella, L. Chiappetti, G. Conti et al., The medium-energy concentrator spectrometer on board the BeppoSAX X-ray astronomy satellite. A&AS 122, 327–340 (1997b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Boer, M. Sommer, K. Hurlez, The HUS solar flare and cosmic gamma-ray burst detector aboard the ULYSSES spacecraft. Ap&SS 171, 323–327 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00646872

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E. Boldt, The cosmic x-ray background. Phys. Rev. 146, 215–257 (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  • L. Bouchet, P. Mandrou, J.P. Roques et al., SIGMA discovery of variable E+–E- Annihilation radiation from the near galactic center variable compact source 1E 1740.7-2942. ApJ 383, L45–L49 (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.A. Bowles, T.J. Patrick, P.H. Sheather, A.M. Eiband, Design of an X-ray telescope system for an orbiting astronomical observatory. J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum. 7, 183–191 (1974)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Bowyer, An alternative interpretation of the paper Stellar X-ray emission by P.C. Fisher and A.J. Meyerott. ApJ 140, 820–821 (1964)

    Google Scholar 

  • S. Bowyer, E.T. Byram, T.A. Chubb, H. Friedman, X-ray emission from the direction of scorpius. Astron. J. 69, 135–135 (1964a)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • S. Bowyer, E.T. Byram, T.A. Chubb, H. Friedman, X-ray sources in the galaxy. Nature 201, 1307–1308 (1964b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Bowyer, E.T. Byram, T.A. Chubb, H. Friedman, Lunar occultation of x-ray emission from the crab nebula. Science 146, 912–917 (1964c)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Bowyer, E.T. Byram, T.A. Chubb, H. Friedman, Observational results of x-ray astronomy, in Astronomical Observations from Space Vehicles, vol. 23, ed. by J.-L. Steinberg (1965), pp. 227–239

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Bradt, T. Ohashi, K. Pounds, X-ray astronomy missions. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 30:1, 391–427 (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Bradt, W. Mayer, S. Naranan, S. Rappaport, G. Spada, Evidence for x-radiation from the radio galaxy M87. ApJ 150, L199–L206 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Bradt, S. Naranan, S. Rappaport, G. Spada, Celestial positions of x-ray sources in sagittarius. ApJ 152, 1005–1013 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.V. Bradt, R.E. Rothschild, J.H. Swank, X-ray timing explorer mission. ApJ 469, 33L (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Bradt, A.M. Levine et al., Observations of Gamma-ray Bursts with the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, in Gamma-Ray Bursts in the Afterglow Era, ESO Astrophysics Symposia, ed. by E. Costa, F. Frontera, J. Hjorth (Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/10853853_6

    Google Scholar 

  • S. Brandt, N. Lund, A. Rao, The watch all-sky monitor for the granat project. Adv. Space Res. 10, 239–242 (1990)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Branduardi, K.O. Mason, P.W. Sanford, Further copernicus x-ray observations of 3U 1700-37. MNRAS 185, 137–142 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Brini, D. Cattani, U. Ciriegi et al., Results of an x-ray scanning of the sky in the 20–200 keV range. Ann. d’Astrophys. 28, 1034 (1965)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Brini, U. Ciriegi, F. Fuligni, E. Moretti, G. Vespignani, Cosmic x-ray sources in the 20–180 KeV energy range. ApJ 149, 429–433 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Brini, F. Frontera, F. Fuligni, Upper limits of x-ray fluxes from some quasars. Il Nuovo Cimento B Ser. 65(2), 181–186 (1970). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02711194

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Brini, F. Frontera, F. Fuligni, E. Morelli, Hard x-ray observation of the perseus region. ApL 18, 15–17 (1976)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.C. Brinkman, J. Dam, W.A. Mels, G.K. Skinner, W.P. Willmore, Coded mask imaging x-ray spectrometer for the Saljut-Mission, in Non-thermal and Very High Temperature Phenomena in X-ray Astronomy, Proceedings of an International Workshop held 19–20 Dec, 1983, in Rome, Italy. Edited by G.C. Perola and M. Salvati. Roma: Univers. “La Sapienzia”, Istituto Astronomico p.263 (1985)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Buff, G. Jernigan, B. Laufer et al., Intense X-ray flares from Aquila X-1 and Circinus X-1. ApJ 212, 768–773 (1977)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Buselli, The observations of x-rays from the galactic centre and centaurus regions. PASA 1, 168 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Buselli, M.C. Clancy, P.J.N. Davison et al., Spectral properties of the x-ray objects GX 3 + 1, GX 354-5 and Sco XR-1. Nature 219, 1124–1127 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Chodil, H. Mark, R. Rodrigues et al., Spectral and location measurements of several cosmic x-ray sources including a variable source in centaurus. Phys. Rev. Lett. 19, 681–683 (1967a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Chodil, H. Mark, R.M. Rodrigues, C. Rowe, C.D. Swift, Proportional counters and electronic systems for observing cosmic x-rays. RScI 38, 1508–1514 (1967b)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.W. Clark, Balloon observation of the x-ray spectrum of the crab nebula above 15 keV. Phys. Rev. Lett. 14, 91–94 (1965)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Clark, G. Garmire, M. Oda et al., Positions of three cosmic x-ray sources in scorpio and sagittarius. Nature 207, 584–587 (1965)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.W. Clark, W.H.G. Lewin, W.B. Smith, Sky survey of high-energy cosmic x-rays and spectra of the sources in the crab nebula and cygnus. ApJ 151, 21–32 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.E. Cole, A.M. Cruise, J.P. Osborne et al., ARIEL-6 observations of the hot white dwarf HZ43. SSRv 30, 201–205 (1981)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • L.R. Cominsky, K.S. Wood, Discovery of a 7.1 hour period and eclipses from MXB 1659-29. ApJ 283, 765–773 (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  • L.R. Cominsky, K.S. Wood, Further Observations of the Eclipsing X-Ray Burst Source MXB 1659-29. ApJ 337, 485–493 (1989)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.P. Conner, W.D. Evans, R.D. Belian, The recent appearance of a new x-ray source in the southern sky. ApJ 157, L157–L159 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • B.A. Cooke, K.A. Pounds, Further high sensitivity x-ray sky survey from the Southern Hemisphere. NPhS 229, 144–147 (1971). https://doi.org/10.1038/physci229144a0

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • B.A. Cooke, K.A. Pounds, E.A. Stewardson, D.J. Adams, A cosmic x-ray survey in the southern hemisphere. ApJ 150, L189–L191 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E. Costa, G. Auriemma, L. Boccaccini et al., High pressure MWPC for hard x-ray astronomy. Nucl. Instrum. Methods 156, 57–61 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.J.N. Davison, G. Buselli, M.C. Clancy, R.M. Thomas, Weak x-ray sources in the Southern Hemisphere. ApJ 167, 479–486 (1971)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.J.N. Davison, J.L. Culhane, R.J. Mitchell, A.C. Fabian, An increase in the x-ray flux from centaurus A. ApJ 196, L23–L25 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.A.J. de Korte, J.A.M. Bleeker, A.J.F. den Boggende et al., The x-ray imaging telescopes on EXOSAT. Space Sci. Rev. 30, 495–511 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.J.F. den Boggende, H.T.J.A. Lafleur, An instrument for measuring cosmic x-ray radiation. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 22, 555–559 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Elvis, C.G. Page, K.A. Pounds, M.J. Ricketts, M.J.L. Turner, Discovery of powerful transient X-ray source A0620-00 with Ariel V Sky Survey experiment. Nature 257, 656–657 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.E. Fenimore, Coded aperture imaging: the modulation transfer function for uniformly redundant arrays. Appl. Opt. 19, 2465–2471 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, Lockheed Missiles and Space Division Document LMSD 702172, Palo Alto (1960)

    Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, X-ray astronomy discovery experiments, II. APS April Meeting 54, id.H14.006 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, A.J. Meyerott, Stellar x-ray emission. ApJ 139, 123–142 (1964)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, A.J. Meyerott, Replay to a letter of Stuart Bowyer. ApJ 140, 821–823 (1964)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, D.B. Clark, A.J. Meyerott, K.L. Smith, Observational result on X-rays. AnAp 27, 809–812 (1964)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, H.M. Johnson, W.C. Jordan, A.J. Meyerott, L.W. Acton, Observations of cosmic x-rays. ApJ 143, 203–217 (1966)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.C. Fisher, W.C. Jordan, A.J. Meyerott, L.W. Acton, D.T. Roethig, X-ray spectra of several cosmic sources. ApJ 147, 1209–1213 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.J. Fishman, F.R. Harnden Jr, R.C. Haymes, Observation of pulsed hard x-radiation from NP 0532 from 1967 data. ApJ 156, L107–L110 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F.W. Floyd, Limit on the angular size of Cyg XR–1. Nature 222, 967–967 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F.W. Floyd, I.S. Glass, H.W. Schnopper, Hard x-rays from the crab pulsar. Nature 224, 50–51 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Forman, C. Jones, L. Cominsky et al., The fourth UHURU catalog of x-ray sources. ApJS 38, 357–412 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.J. Francey, A.G. Fenton, J.R. Harries, K.G. McCracken, Variability of centaurus XR-2. Nature 216, 773–774 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Friedman, The History of X-ray Astronomy. http://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/multiwavelength-astronomy/x-ray/history/index.html (2023)

  • H. Friedman, Recent experiments from rockets and satellites. AJ 65, 264–271 (1960). https://doi.org/10.1086/108243

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Friedman, A Survey of the x-ray sky with HEAO A-1. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 366, 423–434 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Friedman, E.T. Byram, X-rays from sources 3C 273 and M 87. Science 158, 257–259 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Friedman, S.W. Lichtman, E.T. Byram, Photon counter measurements of solar x-rays and extreme ultraviolet light. Phys. Rev. 83, 1025–1030 (1951)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Friedman, E.T. Byram, T.A. Chubb, Distribution and variability of cosmic x-ray sources. Science 156, 374–378 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Fritz, J.F. Meekins, R.C. Henry, E.T. Byram, H. Friedman, Soft x-rays from scorpius XR-1. ApJ 153, L199–L202 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Fritz, R.C. Henry, J.F. Meekins, T.A. Chubb, H. Friedman, X-ray pulsar in the crab nebula. Science 164, 709–712 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Frontera, E. Costa, D. dal Fiume et al., The high energy instrument PDS on-board the BeppoSAX X–ray astronomy satellite. A&AS 122, 357–369 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, B.B. Rossi, A “telescope” for soft x-ray astronomy. J. Geophys. Res. 65, 773–775 (1960)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Gaillardetz, P. Bjorkholm, R. Mastronardi, M. Vanderhill, D. Howland, The HEAO-B monitor proportional counter instrument. ITNS 25, 437–444 (1978)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, Secrets of the Hoary Deep: A Personal History of Modern Astronomy (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 2008)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, H. Gursky, F.R. Paolini, B.B. Rossi, Evidence for x-rays from sources outside the solar system. Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 439–443 (1962)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, H. Gursky, J.R. Waters, G. Clark, B. Rossi, Two sources of cosmic x-rays in scorpius and sagittarius. Nature 204, 981–982 (1964)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, W.P. Reidy, T. Zehnpfennig, J.C. Lindsay, W.S. Muney, Solar x-ray image obtained using grazing-incidence optics. ApJ 142, 1274–1278 (1965)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, P. Gorenstein, H. Gursky, J.R. Waters, An x-ray survey of the Cygnus region. ApJ 148, L119–L127 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, H. Gursky, L.P. Speybroeck, Observational Techniques in X-Ray Astronomy. ARA&A 6, 373–415 (1968)

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, E. Kellogg, P. Gorenstein, H. Gursky, H. Tananbaum, An x-ray scan of the galactic plane from UHURU. ApJ 165, L27 (1971)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Giacconi, G. Branduardi, U. Briel et al., The Einstein (HEAO 2) x-ray observatory. ApJ 230, 540–550 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Gilfanov, R. Syunyaev, E. Churazov et al., Observations of a nova in the MUSCAE constellation with the Sigma telescope of the GRANAT Observatory – Hard X-ray spectral properties and the discovery of an annihilation line in the spectrum. Sov. Astron. Lett. 17, 437–447 (1991)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Giovannelli, V. Kurt, E. Sheffer, G.S. Bisnovatyj-Kogan, Hercules X-1. IAUC 3924, 2 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • I.S. Glass, Observations of x-rays from taurus X-1 and cygnus X-1. ApJ 157, 215–222 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.J. Gloudemans, E. Kuulkers, R. Campana et al., A&A 649, A174 (2021)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Gorenstein, E.M. Kellogg, H. Gursky, The spectrum of diffuse cosmic x-rays 1–13 keV. ApJ 156, 315–324 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Gorenstein, H. Gursky, E.M. Kellogg, R. Giacconi, An x-ray survey of the cassiopeia region and its implications concerning supernova remnants and the galactic source distribution. ApJ 160, 947–957 (1970)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Gorenstein, B. Harris, H. Gursky, R. Giacconi, A rocket payload using focusing x-ray optics for the observations of soft cosmic x-rays. Nucl. Instrum. Methods 91, 451–459 (1971)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Gorestein, F.R. Harnden Jr, D.G. Fabricant, In orbit performance of the Einstein observatory HEAO-2 imaging proportional counter. ITNS 28, 869–874 (1981)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.J. Grader, R.W. Hill, F.D. Seward, A. Toor, X-ray spectra from three cosmic sources. Science 152, 1499–1504 (1966)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.J. Grader, R.W. Hill, F.D. Seward, X-ray airglow in the daytime Sky. J. Geophys. Res. 73, 7149–7153 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.E. Grindlay, H.L. Marshall, P. Hertz et al., Time-resolved imaging and spectral studies of an x-ray burst from globular cluster Terzan 2. ApJL 240, L121–L125 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.E. Gruber, P.R. Blanco, W.A. Heindl et al., The high energy X-ray timing experiment on XTE. Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. v120, C641 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Gursky, R. Giacconi, F.R. Paolini, B.B. Rossi, Further evidence for the existence of galactic x-rays. Phys. Rev. Lett. 11, 530–535 (1963)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H.R. Giacconi, P. Gorenstein, J.R. Waters et al., A measurement of the location of the x-ray source SCO X-1. ApJ 146, 310–316 (1966)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Gursky, E.M. Kellogg, P. Gorenstein, The location of the x-ray source in VELA. ApJ 154, L71–L74 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Gursky, H. Schnopper, D.R. Parsignault, The hard x-ray experiment on the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite. ApJ 201, L127–L131 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Gursky, H. Bradt, R. Doxsey et al., Measurements of x-ray source positions by the scanning modulation collimator on HEAO 1. ApJ 223, 973–978 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Hall, M.J. Ricketts, Z.G. Page, K.A. Pounds, ARIEL-6 medium energy spectral observations of active galaxies. SSRv 30, 47–54 (1981)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.R. Harries, K.G. McCracken, R.J. Francey, A.G. Fenton, A strong x-ray source in the vicinity of the constellation Crux. Nature 215, 38–40 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.E. Harris, Editor; D. Irwin, Editorial Assistant, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Einstein Observatory Revised User’s Manual, Chapter 7 (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.C. Haymes, W.L. Craddock Jr, High-energy x-rays from the crab nebula. JGR 71, 3261–3264 (1966)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.C. Haymes, D.V. Ellis, G.J. Fishman, J.D. Kurfess, W.H. Tucker, Observation of gamma radiation from the crab nebula. ApJ 151, L9–L14 (1968a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.C. Haymes, D.V. Ellis, G.J. Fishman, S.W. Glenn, J.D. Kurfess, Detection of hard x-radiation from virgo. ApJ 151, L131–L134 (1968b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.C. Haymes, D.V. Ellis, G.J. Fishman, S.W. Glenn, J.D. Kurfess, Detection of gamma radiation from the cygnus region. ApJ 151, L125–L129 (1968b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.R. Hearn, J.A. Richardson, The x-ray light curve of AM Herculis. ApJ 213, L115 (1977)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D. Hearn, J.A. Richardson, H.V.D. Bradt et al., MX 1313+29: a compact source of very low energy X-rays in coma berenices. ApJ 203, L21 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Heise, A.C. Brinkman, J. Schrijver et al., Evidence for x-ray emission from flare stars observed by ANS. ApJ 202, L73–L76 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Heise, A.C. Brinkman, A.J.F. den Boggende et al., ANS observations on the X-ray burster MXB1730-335 Nature 261, 562–564 (1976)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.C. Henry, G. Fritz, J.F. Meekins, H. Friedman, E.T. Byram, Possible detection of a dense intergalactic plasma. ApJ 153, L11–L18 (1968)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.C. Higdon, R.E. Lingenfelter, Gamma-ray bursts. ARA&A 28, 401–436 (1990)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • High Energy Astrophysics Group at UCSD, Apollo 15 & 16. http://www.ucsdhighenergyastrophysicsgroup.com/space-missions/apollo-15-16/ (2023)

  • Interview of Herbert Friedman by Richard F. Hirsh on 1980 August 21, in Niels Bohr Library & Archives (AIP College Park, MD, 1980). www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4613

  • R.E. Hirsh, Glimpsing an Invisible Universe: The Emergence of X-ray Astronomy (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.A. Hoffman, W.H.G. Lewin, F.A. Primini et al., HEAO 1 observations of a type I burst from MXB 1728-34. ApJ 233, L51–L55 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • S. Holt, Si(Li) x-ray astronomical spectroscopy. SSI 2, 205 (1976)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.O. Hulburt, Ionization in the upper atmosphere of the Earth. Phys.Rev. 31, 1018–1037 (1928)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Inoue, TENMA observations of bright binary x-ray sources. Space Sci. Rev. 40, 317–338 (1985)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Inoue, The X-ray astronomy satellite “ASCA”. Exp. Astron. 4, 1–10 (1993)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Inoue, K. Koyama, K. Makishima et al., X-Ray observation by the satellite ’hakucho’ Corsa-B i) the Outline, in 16th International Cosmic Ray Conference, ed. by S. Miyake, Kyoto, Japan, 6–18 Aug, 1979, Conference Papers, vol. 1 (University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 1980), pp. 5–10

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Jager, W.A. Mels, A.C. Brinkman et al., The wide field cameras onboard the BeppoSAX X-ray astronomy satellite. A&AS 125, 557–572 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N. Jagoda, K. Kubierschky, R. Frank et al., IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 21, 194 (1974)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Jain, G. Hasinger, W. Pietsch et al., Hard x-ray temporal and spectral observation of an active state of Sco X-1. A&A 140, 179–184 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.F. Janes, K.A. Pounds, M.J. Ricketts, A.P. Willmore, L.V. Morrison, Identification of GX3+1 from lunar occultations. Nature 235, 152–155 (1972). https://doi.org/10.1038/235152a0

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Kasturirangan, U.R. Rao, D.P. Sharma, M.S. Radha, X-ray observation of GX17+2 and GX9+9 by Aryabhata. Nature 260, 226–227 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.L. Kelley, K. Mitsuda, C.A. Allen et al., The Suzaku high resolution x-ray spectrometer. PASJ 59, S77–S112 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.L. Kelley, H. Akamatsu, P. Azzarello et al., The Astro-H high resolution soft x-ray spectrometer. Proc. SPIE 9905 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2232509

  • E. Kendziorra, W. Pietsch, R. Staubert, J. Trümper, Forschung mit Ballonen, Schliersee, DGLR-Symp (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Kestenbaum, J.R.P. Angel, R. Novick, X-ray spectrum of scorpius X-l obtained with a bragg crystal spectrometer. ApJ 164, L87–L93 (1971a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Kestenbaum, J.R.P. Angel, R. Novick, A Bragg Spectrometer for Stellar X-Ray Astronomy, in New techniques in Space Astronomy, Ed. by F. Labuhn, R. Lust. IAU Symposium no. 41, held in Munich, 10–14 Aug, 1970. (Dordrecht, Reidel, 1971b), p.137

    Google Scholar 

  • K. Koyama, TENMA observation of diffuse galactic x-ray emission. PASJ 41, 665–678 (1989)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Koyama, H. Tsunemi, T. Dotani et al., X-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (XIS) on board Suzaku. PASJ 59, S23–S33 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.E. Kupperian Jr, E.T. Byram, T.A. Chubb, H. Friedman, Far ultra-violet radiation in the night sky. P&SS 1, 3–6 (1959)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E. Kuulkers, J.J.M. in ’t Zand, J.P. Lasota, A&A 503, 889 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • A.M. Levine, H. Bradt, W. Cui et al., First results from the all-sky monitor on the rossi x-ray timing explorer. ApJ 469, L33–L36 (1996)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, G.W. Clark, W.B. Smith, X-ray survey of the northern sky, observation of spectra in the energy range from 20 to 100 keV. AJ 72, 812 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, G.W. Clark, W.B. Smith, Observation of CEN XR-2 and other high-energy x-ray sources in the southern sky. ApJ 152, L49–L53 (1968a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, G.W. Clark, W.B. Smith, Observation of an x-ray flare from SCO X-1. ApJ 152, L55–L61 (1968b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, G.W. Clark, W.B. Smith, Search for x-rays from the large and small magellanic clouds. Nature 220, 249–250 (1968c)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, J.E. McClintock, S.G. Ryckman, I.S. Glass, W.B. Smith, Continual variations in the high-energy flux of x-rays from scorpius X-1. ApJ 162, L109–L113 (1970a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, J.E. McClintock, W.B. Smith, Decrease in the high-energy flux from centaurus XR-2. ApJ 159, L193–L196 (1970b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, J.E. McClintock, S.G. Ryckman, W.B. Smith, Detection of a high-energy x-ray flare from a source in crux. ApJ 166, L69–L72 (1971a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H.G. Lewin, S.G. Ryckman, J.E. McClintock, X-rays from a new variable source GX 1+4. ApJ 169, L17–L21 (1971b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.E. McClintock, G.R. Ricker, S.G. Ryckman, W.H.G. Lewin, High-energy x-ray sources near the galactic equator between 335 and 350. ApJ 173, L57–L59 (1972)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Lewin, F. Li, J. Hoffman et al., Discovery of X-ray bursts from several sources near the galactic centre. MNRAS 177, 93–98 (1976)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luis E. Pacheco (2005). HXR-76 (HARD X-RAYS 1976) Stratocat. http://stratocat.com.ar/fichas-e/1976/TPS-19760729.htm

  • K.S.K. Lum, C.R. Canizares, G.W. Clark et al., The spectral archive of cosmic x-ray sources observed by the Einstein observatory focal plane crystal spectrometer. ApJS 78, 423–503 (1992)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N. Lund, The WATCH gamma-burst detector for EURECA-1, in Proceedings of X-ray Instrumentation in Astronomy (1985), p. 55

    Google Scholar 

  • F. Makino, Observation of the energy spectrum of cosmic diffuse x-rays in the energy Range 20 keV–4 MeV. Astrophys. Space Sci. 37, 115–130 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Makino, ASTRO-C Team, The x-ray astronomy satellite ASTRO-C. ApL 25, 223–233 (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.K. Manchanda, S. Biswas, P.C. Agrawal et al., The spectrum of diffuse cosmic x-rays in the 20–125 keV range. Ap&SS 15, 272–283 (1972)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.K. Manchanda, A. Bazzano, C.D. La Padula, V.F. Polcaro, P. Ubertini, Line feature around 73 KeV from the crab nebula. ApJ 252, 172–178 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Mandrou, Galactic center. IAUC 5032, 1 (1990)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Manzo, S. Giarrusso, A. Santangelo et al., The high pressure gas scintillation proportional counter on-board the BeppoSAX X-ray astronomy satellite. A&AS 122, 341–356 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Mark, R. Prince, R. Rodrigues, F.D. Seward, C.D. Swift, Detection of x-rays from large magellanic cloud. ApJ 155, L143–L144 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Marsden, N. Angold, The epic voyage of ulysses. ESA Bull. 136, 2–7 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.L. Marshall, G.W. Clark, SAS 3 survey of the soft X-ray background, Part I. ApJ 287, 633–652 (1984). (ISSN 0004-637X)

    Google Scholar 

  • H.L. Marshall et al., Further analysis of SAS 3 observations of the rapid burster/MXB 1730-335, Part I. ApJ 227,555–562 (1979)

    Google Scholar 

  • F.E. Marshall, E.A. Boldt, S.S. Holt et al., The diffuse X-ray background spectrum from 3 to 50 keV. ApJ 235, 4–10 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • D.Y.A. Martynov, Sheffer, Moskalenko, Bortle J (1975) Nova Monocerotis 1975 (= A0620-00) IAU Circ., No. 2846, no.1 Edited by Marsden, B. G.

    Google Scholar 

  • K.O. Mason, F.J. Hawkins, P.W. Sanford, P. Murdin, A. Savage, X-ray absorption events in cygnus X-1 observed with copernicus. ApJ 192, L65–L69 (1974)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Matteson, The UCSD/MIT hard X-ray and low energy gamma-ray experiment for HEAO-1 – Design and early results (Proceedings of AIAA 16th Aerospace Science, Mtg 78-35, 1978). Offprint

    Google Scholar 

  • W.F. Mayer, The SAS-3 X-ray observatory. Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest 14, 14–22 (1975)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.O. Mazets, S.V. Golenetskii, Observational properties of gamma-ray bursts. Itogi Nauki Tekh. Astron. 32, 16–42 (1987)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.P. Mazets, S.V. Golentskii, V.N. Ilinskii, R.L. Aptekar, I.U.A. Guryan, Observations of a flaring X-ray pulsar in Dorado. Nature 282, 587–589 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.P. Mazets, S.V. Golenetskii, V.N. Ilinskii et al., Catalog of cosmic gamma-ray bursts from the KONUS experiment data. Ap&SS 80, 3–143 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.E. McClintock, W.H.G. Lewin, R.J. Sullivan, G.W. Clark, High energy x-ray study of M-87. Nature 223, 162–163 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K.G. McCracken, The extension of celestial x-ray spectra to high proton energy. PASA 1, 236 (1969)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.F. Meekins, K.S. Wood, R.L. Hedler et al., Millisecond variability of Cygnus X-1. ApJ 278, 288–297 (1984)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.E. Metzger, R.H. Parker, D. Gilman et al., ApJ 194, L19 (1974)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Mewe, J. Heise, E.H.B.M. Gronenschild et al., Detection of x-ray emission from stellar coronae with ANS. ApJ 202, L67–L71 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Mitsuda, H. Inoue, K. Koyama et al., Energy spectra of low-mass binary x-ray sources observed from Tenma. PASJ 36, 741–759 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Mitsuda, M. Bautz, H. Inoue et al., The x-ray observatory Suzaku. PASJ 59, S1–S7 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • E.H. Morgan, R.A. Remillard, J. Greiner, RXTE observations of QPOs in the black hole candidate GRS 1915+105. ApJ 482, 993 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • various authors X-ray Astronomy with EXOSAT. MmSAI 59, 53–259 (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Murakami, M. Fujii, K. Hayashida et al., The gamma-ray burst detector system on board Ginga. PASJ 41, 405–426 (1989)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.F. Mushotzky, X-ray spectra and time variability of active galactic nuclei. Adv Space Res 3, 157–165 (1984)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Nakazawa, G. Sato, M. Kokubun et al., Hard x-ray imager onboard Hitomi (ASTRO-H). J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 4, 021410-1–021410-12 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  • NASA’s HEASARC: Observatories “The Einstein Observatory” (HEAO-2). https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/einstein/heao2.html (2023)

  • NCAR Scientific Balloon Facility Annual Report 1969 (1970). http://n2t.net/ark:/85065/d7wd3z4v

    Google Scholar 

  • J.P. Norris, K.S. Wood, Discovery of 5 HZ Quasi-periodic Oscillations in Cygnus X-2. ApJ 312, 732–738 (1987)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Oda, Cosmic X-ray satellite “Hakucho”. Acta Astronaut 7, 957–965 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Oda, G. Clark, G. Garmire et al., Angular sizes of the x-ray sources in scorpio and sagittarius. Nature 205, 554–555 (1965)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Oda, H. Bradt, G. Garmire et al., The size and position of the x-ray source in the crab nebula. ApJ 148, L5–L11 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Overbeck, H.D. Tananbaum, Time variations in scorpius X-1 and cygnus XR-1. ApJ 153, 899–908 (1968a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Overbeck, H.D. Tananbaum, Twofold increase of the high-energy x-ray flux from cygnus XR-1. Phys. Rev. Lett. 20, 24–27 (1968b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.W. Overbeck, E.A. Womack, H.D. Tananbaum, High-energy x-rays from cygnus XR-1. ApJ 150, 47–56 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Oyama K-I, K. Schlegel, Watanabe S (1988) Temperature structure of plasma bubbles in the low latitude ionosphere around 600 km altitude. Planet. Space Sci. 36, 553–567 (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  • A.N. Parmar, D.D.E. Martin, M. Bavdaz et al., The low-energy concentrator spectrometer on-board the BeppoSAX X-ray astronomy satellite A&AS 122, 309–326 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Paul, P. Mandrou, J. Ballet et al., SIGMA: the hard x-ray and soft gamma-ray telescope on board the GRANAT space observatory. Adv. Space Res. 10, 289–302 (1991)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Peacock, R.D. Andresen, G. Manzo et al., The gas scintillation proportional counter on EXOSAT. Space Sci. Rev. 30, 525–534 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • L.E. Peterson, Instrumental technique in xX-ray astronomy. ARA&A 13, 423 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • L.E. Peterson, A.S. Jacobson, Balloon observations of x-rays from scorpius and from the crab nebulae. Astron. J. 71, 174 (1966)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Piccinotti, R.F. Mushotzky, E.A. Boldt et al., A complete X-ray sample of the high-latitude (b)-20 sky from HEAO 1 A-2: log N-log S and luminosity functions. ApJ 253, 485–503 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Pietsch, E. Kendziorra, R. Staubert, J. Truemper, The 4.8 hour variation of cxgnus x-3 at high x-ray energy. ApJ 203, L67–L69 (1976)

    Google Scholar 

  • W. Pietsch, W. Voges, C. Reppin et al., High-energy x-ray observations of the x-ray binary 4U 1700-37. ApJ 237, 964–969 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • V.F. Polcaro, A. Bazzano, C.D. La Padula, P. Ubertini, R.K. Manchanda, Proc. COSPAR Conf., Budapest. (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  • G. Polucci, H.V. Bradt, W. Mayer, S. Rappaport, Upper limits on the angular sizes of three x-ray sources in the sagittarius region. ApJ 159, L109–L113 (1970)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Pounds, British X-ray Astronomy. Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 27, 435–444 (1986)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Pounds, Forty years on from Aerobee 150: a personal perspective, in Frontiers of X-Ray Astronomy, ed. by A.C. Fabian, K.A. Pounds, R.D. Blandford (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002), pp. 1–18

    Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Pounds, The royal society’s formative role in UK space research. Notes Rec. R. Soc. 64, S65–S76 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsnr.2010.0039

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Pounds, P.J. Bowen, A simple rocket-borne X-radiation monitor: its scope and results of an early flight. MNRAS 123, 347–357 (1962). https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/123.4.347

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Pounds, A.A. Wells, The U.K. wide field camera on ROSAT – First results. AdSpR 11, 125–134 (1991)

    Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Pounds, B.A. Cooke, M.J. Ricketts et al., Observations of variable and transient x-ray sources with the Ariel V Sky Survey experiment. Ap&SS 42, 143–159 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Proctor, W. Pietsch, C. Reppin, A balloon-borne solid state cosmic x-ray detector. NIM 197, 477–483 (1982)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • U.R. Rao, K. Kasturirangan, D.P. Sharma, M.S. Radha, Observation of Cyg X-1 from Aryabhata Nature 260, 307–308 (1976)

    Google Scholar 

  • C.P. Reinert, W.R. Webber, D.S. Guo, Cosmic x-ray measurements using a balloon-borne large-area low-background telescope. BAAS 2, 288–289 (1970)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C. Reppin, W. Pietsch, J. Trüumper, E. Kendziorra, R. Staubert, Proceedings of ESRANGE Symposium, Ajaccio (ESA SP-135) (1978), pp. 293-297

    Google Scholar 

  • C. Reppin, W. Pietsch, J. Truemper et al., Hard x-ray observation of cygnus X-3. ApJ 234, 329–332 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • C. Reppin, W. Pietsch, J. Trümper, E. Kendziorra, R. Staubert, High Energy X-ray Experiment for the Saljut-Mission (HEXE). Non-thermal and Very High Temperature Phenomena in X-ray Astronomy. Ed. Perola and Salvati. P.279 (1985)

    Google Scholar 

  • G.R. Ricker, M. Gerassimenko, J.E. McClintock, S.G. Ryckman, W.H.G. Lewin, Upper limits to the high-energy x-ray flux from 16 x-ray sources and 10 pulsars. ApJ 186, L111–L113 (1973)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Ricker, A. Scheepmaker, S.G. Ryckman et al., High-energy x-ray observations of a lunar occultation of the crab nebula. ApJ 197, L83–L87 (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.R. Ricker, A. Scheepmaker, J.E. Ballintine et al., Observations of cygnus X-3 from a balloon-borne x-ray telescope. NASSP 389, 279–282 (1976a)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G.R. Ricker, A. Scheepmaker, J.E. Ballintine et al., High-energy x-ray observations of the transient source A0535+26 from a balloon-borne telescope. ApJ 204, L73–L76 (1976b)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.J. Ricketts, R. Hall, C.G. Page, C.H. Whitford, K.A. Pounds, GX 1+4: pulse period measurement and detection of phase-variable iron line emission. MNRAS 201, 759–768 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Rocchia, R. Rothenflug, D. Boclet, P.H. Durouchoux, Observation of five sources of cosmic x-rays in the 15–150 keV energy range. A&A 1, 48–51 (1969)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Interview of Nancy G. Roman by David DeVorkin on 1980 August 19, in Niels Bohr Library & Archives (American Institute of Physics, College Park, 1980). http://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4846

  • J.P. Roques, J. Paul, P. Mandrou, F. Lebrun, The sigma mission on the granat satellite. Adv. Space Res. 10(2), 223–232 (1990)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Rothschild, E. Boldt, S. Holt et al., The cosmic x-ray experiment aboard HEAO-1. Space Sci. Instrum. 4, 269R (1979)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R.E. Rothschild, F.R. Mushotzky, W.A. Baity et al., 2–165 keV observations of active galaxies and the diffuse background. ApJ 269, 423–437 (1983)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Sandage, P.J. Osmer, H. Bradt et al., On the optical identification of SCO X-1. ApJ 146, 316–321 (1966)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Sanford, K.O. Mason, J. Ives, Observations of a line feature in the x-ray spectrum of Cygnus X-3. MNRAS 173, 9P–14P (1975)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Santangelo, R. Madonia, Fifty years of X-ray astronomy: a look back and into the (near) future. APh 53, 130–151 (2014)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Schnopper, J.P. Delvaille, A. Epstein et al., Discovery of X-ray bursts from several sources near the galactic centre. ApJ 210, L75 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.J. Serlemitsos, R. Petre, C. Glasser, F. Birsa, Broad band X-ray astronomical spectroscopy. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 31, 786–790 (1984)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P.J. Serlemitsos, F.E. Marshall, R. Petre, Jahoda et al., (1992) First Results from BBXRT. Frontiers Science Series, Tanaka Y and Koyama K p. 221.

    Google Scholar 

  • P.J. Serlemitsos, Y. Soong, K.-W. Chan et al., The x-ray telescope onboard Suzaku. PASJ 59, S9–S21 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Seward, G. Chodil, H. Mark, C. Swift, A. Toor, Diffuse cosmic x-ray background between 4 and 40 KeV. ApJ 150, 845–850 (1967)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Scheepmaker, G. Ricker, W. Lewin et al., A hard x-ray observation of the perseus and coma clusters. BAAS 6, 437–437 (1974)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A.P. Smale, C. Done, R.F. Mushotzky et al., Resolving the iron K line in cygnus X-2: an observation with BBXRT. ApJ 410, 796–802 (1993)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • A. Smith, High Pressure Gas Scintillation Proportional Counter for the Saljut-Mission. In “Non-thermal and Very High Temperature Phenomena in X-ray Astronomy”, Proceedings of an International Workshop held 19-20 December, 1983 in Rome, Italy. Edited by G.C. Perola and M. Salvati. Roma: Univers. “La Sapienzia”, Istituto Astronomico, 1985., p.271 (1985)

    Google Scholar 

  • J.F. Smith, G.M. Courtier, The Ariel 5 programme. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 350, 421–439 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Staubert, J. Truemper, Ballon-Röntgenmessungen an Neutronensternen und Quasaren, vol. 21. July–Aug, 1982 (Sterne und Weltraum, 1982) pp. 286–290

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Staubert, E. Kendziorra, W. Pietsch et al., The hard x-ray spectrum of AM Herculis. ApJ 225, L113–L114 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Staubert, E. Kendziorra, W. Pietsch et al., Hard x-ray pulses from 4U 0900-40. ApJ 239, 1010–1016 (1980)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Staubert, E. Kendziorra, W. Pietsch et al., Hard X-ray balloon observations of compact galactic and extragalactic X-ray sources, in European Space Agency, ESLAB Symposium on X-ray Astronomy, 15th, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 22–26 June, 1981; Space Sci. Rev. 30(1–4), 311–323 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Steinle, W. Voges, W. Pietsch et al., The hard x-ray spectrum of cygnus X-1. A&A 107, 350–353 (1982)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sunvaev et al., Discovery of hard X-ray emission from supernova 1987A. Nature 330, 227–229 (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunyaev et al., Detection of hard component in the X-ray spectrum of X-ray nova in Vulpecula. Preliminary results from KVANT module. Sov. Astron. Lett. 14, 771–786 (1988a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunyaev et al., Acceleration of Hercules X-1 pulsar rotation. The “Kvant” module observations in August 1987–July 1988. Sov. Astron. Lett. 14, 979–991 (1988b)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.A. Sunayev, S.I. Babichenko, D.A. Goganov, S.R. Tabaldyev, N.S. Iamburenko, X-ray telescopes ART-P and ART-S for the granat project. Adv. Space Res. 10, 233–237 (1990a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sunyaev et al., Highlights from the KVANT mission. Adv. Space Res. 10b, 41–46 (1990b)

    Google Scholar 

  • K. Suzuki, M. Matsuoka, H. Inoue et al., Detection of iron K-emission lines from two low-mass binary X-ray sources: Scorpius X-1 and 4U 1608-52. PASJ 36, 761–767 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.F.G. Swann, Ionization of the upper atmosphere. II. Mon. Weather Rev. 44, 507 (1916a)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.F.G. Swann, On the ionization of the upper atmosphere. Terr. Magn. Atmos. Electr. 21, 1 (1916b)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • H. Tajima, S. Watanabe, Y. Fukazawa et al., Design and performance of soft gamma-ray detector onboard the Hitomi (ASTRO-H) satellite. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 4, 021411-1–021411-14 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  • T. Takahashi, K. Abe, M. Endo et al., Hard X-Ray Detector (HXD) on board Suzaku. PASJ 59, S35–S51 (2007)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Takahashi, M. Kokubun, K. Mitsuda et al., Hitomi (ASTRO-H) x-ray astronomy satellite. J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 4, 021402-1–021402-13 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  • Y. Tanaka, Introduction to HINOTORI. Sol. Phys. 86, 3–6 (1983)

    Google Scholar 

  • K. Tanaka, Impact of x-ray observations from the Hinotori satellite on solar flare research. PASJ 39, 1–45 (1987)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Tanaka, T. Watanabe, K. Nishi, K. Akita, High-resolution solar flare X-ray spectra obtained with rotating spectrometers on the HINOTORI satellite. ApJ 254, L59–L63 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Tanaka, M. Fujii, H. Inoue et al., X-ray astronomy satellite Tenma. PASJ 36, 641–658 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Tanaka, H. Inoue, S.S. Holt, The x-ray astronomy satellite ASCA. PASJ 46, L37–L41 (1994)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • T. Tanaka, H. Uchida, H. Nakajima et al., Soft X-ray Imager aboard Hitomi (ASTRO-H). J. Astron. Telesc. Instrum. Syst. 4, 011211-1–011211-15 (2018)

    Google Scholar 

  • A.H. Taylor, E.O. Hulburt, The propagation of radio waves over the Earth. Phys.Rev. 27, 189 (1926)

    Article  ADS  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • B.G. Taylor, R.D. Andresen, A. Peacock, R. Zobl, The EXOSAT mission. SSRv 30, 479–494 (1981)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K. Thyagarajan, A. Neumann, G. Zimmermann, The IRS-P3 remote sensing mission. Acta Astronaut. 39, 711–716 (1996)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J.I. Trombka, E.L. Eller, R.L. Schmadebeck et al., ApJ 194, L27 (1974)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Truemper, The ROSAT mission. AdSpR 2, 241–249 (1982)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. Truemper, W. Pietsch, C. Reppin et al., Evidence for strong cyclotron line emission in the hard x-ray spectrum of Hercules X-1. ApJ 219, L105–L110 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • H. Tsunemi, S. Kitamoto, M. Manabe et al., All sky monitor on board the GINGA satellite and its performance. PASJ 41, 391–403 (1989)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.H. Tucker, The Star Splitters. The High Energy Astronomy Observatories, vol. 466. NASA (1984)

    Google Scholar 

  • M.J.L. Turner, A. Smith, H.U. Zimmermann, The medium energy instrument on EXOSAT. Space Sci. Rev. 30, 513–524 (1981)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M.J.L. Turner, H.D. Thomas, B.E. Patchett et al., The large area counter on Ginga. PASJ 41, 345–372 (1989)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Interview of Merle Tuve by Charles Weiner on 1967 March 30, in Niels Bohr Library & Archives (AIP College Park, MD, 1967). http://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4920

  • G. Breit, M.A. Tuve, A radio method of estimating the height of the conducting layer. Nature 116, 357 (1925)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Ubertini, Hard x-ray astronomy at IAS. MmSAIt 52, 117–135 (1981)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Ubertini, Scientific balloons: historical remarks. MmSAIt 79, 783–791 (2008)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Ubertini, A. Bazzano, C.D. La Padula, V.F. Polcaro, R.K. Manchanda, IAU Circular N. 3451, (1980)

    Google Scholar 

  • P. Ubertini, A. Bazzano, C.D. La Padula, V.F. Polcaro, Hard x-rays emission (15–150 keV) from the region of 4U O515+38. Astron. Astrophys. Res. Note 106, 174–175 (1982)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Ubertini, A. Bazzano, L. Boccaccini et al., The POKER experiment: a 10,800 cm2 MWPC’s array payload for hard x-ray astronomy. Adv. Space Res. 3(N4), 87–90 (1983)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. van den Berg, J. Homan, J.K. Fridriksson, M. Linares, Discovery of the near-infrared counterpart to the luminous neutron-star low-mass x-ray binary GX 3+1. ApJ 793, 128 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/793/2/128

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. van der Klis, J.H. Swank, W. Zhang et al., Discovery of submillisecond quasi-periodic oscillations in the X-ray flux of Scorpius X-1 ApJ 469, L1–L4 (1996)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.J. van Duinen, J.W.G. Aalders, P.R. Wesselius et al., The ultraviolet experiment onboard the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite – ANS. Astron. Astrophys. 39, 159–163 (1975)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • J. van Paradijs, P. Groot, T. Galama et al., Transient optical emission from the error box of the γ-ray burst of 28 February, Nature 386, 686–689 (1997)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Villa, C.G. Page, M.J.L. Turner et al., The Ariel V Sky Survey instrument and new observations of the Milky Way. MNRAS 176, 609–620 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Voges, W. Pietsch, C. Reppin et al., Cyclotron lines in the hard x-ray spectrum of Hercules X–1. ApJ 263, 803–813 (1982)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • I. Waki, H. Inoue, K. Koyama et al., Discovery of absorption lines in x-ray burst spectra from X1636-536. PASJ 36, 819–830 (1984)

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Weaver, R.F. Mushotzky, K.A. Arnaud et al., Broad band x-ray telescope observations of NGC 4151: iron line diagnostics. ApJ 401, L11 (1992)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W.R. Webber, C.P. Reinert, Balloon-borne studies of x-ray emission from selected regions in the northern sky. ApJ 162, 883–889 (1970)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Wheaton, J.P. Doty, F.A. Primini et al., An absorption feature in the spectrum of the pulsed hard X-ray flux from 4U0115+63. Nature 282, 240–243 (1979)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N.E. White, K.O. Mason, P.W. Sanford, P. Murdin, The x-ray behaviour of 3U 0352+30 (X Per). MNRAS 176, 201–215 (1976)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • N.E. White, G.E. Parkes, P.W. Sanford, K.O. Mason, P.G. Murdin, Two x-ray periodicities from the vicinity of 4U 1145-61. Nature 274, 664–666 (1978)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • R. Wijnands, M. van der Klis, A millisecond pulsar in an x-ray binary system Nature 394, 344–346 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • R.S. Wolff, J.R.P. Angel, R. Novick, P. vanden Bout, Search for polarization in the x-ray emission of the crab nebula. ApJ 160, L21–L25 (1970)

    Google Scholar 

  • H. Wolter, Spiegelsysteme streifenden Einfalls als abbildende Optiken für Röntgenstrahle. Ann. Phys. 10, 94–114 (1952)

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  • K.S. Wood, The USA experiment on ARGOS, in Proceedings of Rossi2000: Astrophysics with the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, ed. by T.E. Strohmayer (2000), p. 139. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000arxt.confE.139W

  • M. Yoshimori, Observations of solar flare gamma-ray spectra with the HINOTORI satellite. ApJS 73, 227–234 (1990)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • M. Yoshimori, K. Okudaira, Y. Hirashima, I. Kondo, Gamma-ray spectrometer aboard solar flare observation satellite HINOTORI. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. 215, 255–259 (1983)

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • W. Zhang, A.B. Giles, K. Jahoda et al., in Proceedings of the SPIE, 2006, vol. 324 (1993)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank Dr. Erik Kuulkers of ESA for the thorough review of the manuscript and for providing many interesting suggestions and comments.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rosalia Madonia .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Santangelo, A., Madonia, R., Piraino, S. (2023). A Chronological History of X-Ray Astronomy Missions. In: Bambi, C., Santangelo, A. (eds) Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4544-0_147-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4544-0_147-1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-16-4544-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-16-4544-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Physics and AstronomyReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Chemistry, Materials and Physics

Publish with us

Policies and ethics