. 2022 Apr 4;22(1):238.

doi: 10.1186/s12888-022-03883-6.

Sex differences in the experience of COVID-19 post-traumatic stress symptoms by adults in South Africa

Ntombifuthi P Nzimande^{1

2}, Maha El Tantawi^{3

4}, Roberto Ariel Abeldaño Zuñiga^{3

5}, Richmond Opoku-Sarkodie⁶, Brandon Brown^{3

7}, Oliver C Ezechi^{3

8}, Benjamin S C Uzochukwu^{3

9}, Passent Ellakany^{3

10}, Nourhan M Aly^{3

4}, Annie Lu Nguyen^{3

11}, Morenike Oluwatoyin Folayan^{3

12}

Affiliations

¹ Mental Health and Wellness Study Group, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. ntombifuthi.nzimande@geo.u-szeged.hu.
² Department of Economic and Social Geography, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary. ntombifuthi.nzimande@geo.u-szeged.hu.
³ Mental Health and Wellness Study Group, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
⁴ Faculty of Dentistry, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
⁵ Postgraduate Department, University of Sierra Sur, Oaxaca, Mexico.
⁶ Doctoral School of Mathematics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
⁷ Center for Healthy Communities, Department of Social Medicine, Population and Public Health, UCR School of Medicine, Riverside, California, USA.
⁸ Department of Clinical Sciences, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Lagos, Nigeria.
⁹ Department of Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Nigeria Nsukka (Enugu campus), Nsukka, Nigeria.
¹⁰ Department of Substitutive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.
¹¹ Department of Family Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
¹² Department of Child Dental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

PMID: 35379197
PMCID: PMC8977834
DOI: 10.1186/s12888-022-03883-6

Sex differences in the experience of COVID-19 post-traumatic stress symptoms by adults in South Africa

Ntombifuthi P Nzimande et al. BMC Psychiatry. 2022.

. 2022 Apr 4;22(1):238.

doi: 10.1186/s12888-022-03883-6.

Authors

Affiliations

¹ Mental Health and Wellness Study Group, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. ntombifuthi.nzimande@geo.u-szeged.hu.
² Department of Economic and Social Geography, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary. ntombifuthi.nzimande@geo.u-szeged.hu.
³ Mental Health and Wellness Study Group, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
⁴ Faculty of Dentistry, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
⁵ Postgraduate Department, University of Sierra Sur, Oaxaca, Mexico.
⁶ Doctoral School of Mathematics, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
⁷ Center for Healthy Communities, Department of Social Medicine, Population and Public Health, UCR School of Medicine, Riverside, California, USA.
⁸ Department of Clinical Sciences, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Lagos, Nigeria.
⁹ Department of Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Nigeria Nsukka (Enugu campus), Nsukka, Nigeria.
¹⁰ Department of Substitutive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.
¹¹ Department of Family Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
¹² Department of Child Dental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

PMID: 35379197
PMCID: PMC8977834
DOI: 10.1186/s12888-022-03883-6

Abstract

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has created multiple mental health challenges. Many residents in South Africa face pre-existing elevated levels of stress and the pandemic may have had varying impacts on sub-populations. The aims of this study were to determine: 1) the factors associated with post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and 2) sex differences in the factors associated with PTSS in adults residing in South Africa during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods: Study participants aged 18 years and above, were recruited for this cross-sectional study through an online survey implemented from June 29, 2020 to December 31, 2020. The outcome variable was PTSS; explanatory variables were sex at birth, COVID-19 status, social isolation and access to emotional support. Confounders considered were age, education level completed and current work status. Logistic regressions were used to determine the association between the outcome and explanatory variables after adjusting for confounders.

Outcomes: There were 489 respondents. Among all respondents, those who were older (AOR: 0.97; 95% CI: 0.95 - 0.99) and had access to emotional support from family and relatives (AOR: 0.27; 95% CI: 0.14 - 0.53) had significantly lower odds of PTSS. Respondents who felt socially isolated had higher odds of PTSS (AOR: 1.17; 95% CI: 1.08 - 1.27). Females had higher PTSS scores and higher odds of PTSS compared to males (AOR: 2.18; 95% CI: 1.41-3.39). Females (AOR: 0.27; 95% CI: 0.08 - 0.95) and males (AOR: 0.26; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.59) who had access to emotional support had significantly lower odds of PTSS than those who had no support. Females (AOR: 1.15; 95% CI: 1.04 -1.27) and males (AOR: 1.19; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.59) who felt socially isolated had higher odds of PTSS compared to those who did not feel socially isolated.

Interpretation: Compared to males, females had higher scores and higher odds of reporting PTSS during the COVID-19 pandemic. Access to emotional support ameliorated the odds of having PTSS for both sexes, while feeling socially isolated worsened the odds for both sexes.

Keywords: COVID-19; Post-traumatic stress symptoms; Sex; South Africa.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors reported no conflict of interest.

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Sex differences in the experience of COVID-19 post-traumatic stress symptoms by adults in South Africa

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Sex differences in the experience of COVID-19 post-traumatic stress symptoms by adults in South Africa

Authors

Affiliations

Abstract

Conflict of interest statement

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