Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2021 Dec 20;12(12):CD010618.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010618.pub2.

Peer support interventions for parents and carers of children with complex needs

Gina-Maree Sartore  1 , Anastasia Pourliakas  2 , Vince Lagioia  1
Affiliations
Review

Peer support interventions for parents and carers of children with complex needs

Gina-Maree Sartore et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Parents and family carers of children with complex needs experience a high level of pressure to meet children's needs while maintaining family functioning and, as a consequence, often experience reduced well-being and elevated psychological distress. Peer support interventions are intended to improve parent and carer well-being by enhancing the social support available to them. Support may be delivered via peer mentoring or through support groups (peer or facilitator led). Peer support interventions are widely available, but the potential benefits and risks of such interventions are not well established.

Objectives: To assess the effects of peer support interventions (compared to usual care or alternate interventions) on psychological and psychosocial outcomes, including adverse outcomes, for parents and other family carers of children with complex needs in any setting.

Search methods: We searched the following resources. • Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; latest issue: April 2014), in the Cochrane Library. • MEDLINE (OvidSP) (1966 to 19 March 2014). • Embase (OvidSP) (1974 to 18 March 2014). • Journals@OVID (22 April 2014). • PsycINFO (OvidSP) (1887 to 19 March 2014). • BiblioMap (EPPI-Centre, Health Promotion Research database) (22 April 2014). • ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (26 May 2014). • metaRegister of Controlled Trials (13 May 2014). We conducted a search update of the following databases. • MEDLINE (OvidSP) (2013 to 20 February 2018) (search overlapped to 2013). • PsycINFO (ProQuest) (2013 to 20 February 2018). • Embase (Elsevier) (2013 to 21 February 2018). We handsearched the reference lists of included studies and four key journals (European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: 31 March 2015; Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders: 30 March 2015; Diabetes Educator: 7 April 2015; Journal of Intellectual Disability Research: 13 April 2015). We contacted key investigators and consulted key advocacy groups for advice on identifying unpublished data. We ran updated searches on 14 August 2019 and on 25 May 2021. Studies identified in these searches as eligible for full-text review are listed as "Studies awaiting classification" and will be assessed in a future update.

Selection criteria: Randomised and cluster randomised controlled trials (RCTs and cluster RCTs) and quasi-RCTs were eligible for inclusion. Controlled before-and-after and interrupted time series studies were eligible for inclusion if they met criteria set by the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Review Group. The comparator could be usual care or an alternative intervention. The population eligible for inclusion consisted of parents and other family carers of children with any complex needs. We applied no restriction on setting.

Data collection and analysis: Inclusion decisions were made independently by two authors, with differences resolved by a third author. Extraction to data extraction templates was conducted independently by two authors and cross-checked. Risk of bias assessments were made independently by two authors and were reported according to Cochrane guidelines. All measures of treatment effect were continuous and were analysed in Review Manager version 5.3. GRADE assessments were undertaken independently by two review authors, with differences resolved by discussion.

Main results: We included 22 studies (21 RCTs, 1 quasi-RCT) of 2404 participants. Sixteen studies compared peer support to usual care; three studies compared peer support to an alternative intervention and to usual care but only data from the usual care arm contributed to results; and three studies compared peer support to an alternative intervention only. We judged risk of bias as moderate to high across all studies, particularly for selection, performance, and detection bias. Included studies contributed data to seven effect estimates compared to usual care: psychological distress (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.10, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.32 to 0.11; 8 studies, 864 participants), confidence and self-efficacy (SMD 0.04, 95% CI -0.14 to 0.21; 8 studies, 542 participants), perception of coping (SMD -0.08, 95% CI -0.38 to 0.21; 3 studies, 293 participants), quality of life and life satisfaction (SMD 0.03, 95% CI -0.32 to 0.38; 2 studies, 143 participants), family functioning (SMD 0.15, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.38; 4 studies, 272 participants), perceived social support (SMD 0.31, 95% CI -0.15 to 0.77; 4 studies, 191 participants), and confidence and skill in navigating medical services (SMD 0.05, 95% CI -0.17 to 0.28; 4 studies, 304 participants). In comparisons to alternative interventions, one pooled effect estimate was possible: psychological distress (SMD 0.2, 95% CI -0.38 to 0.79; 2 studies, 95 participants). No studies reported on adverse outcomes. All narratively synthesised data for psychological distress (compared to usual care - 2 studies), family functioning (compared to usual care - 1 study; compared to an alternative intervention - 1 study), perceived social support (compared to usual care - 2 studies), and self-efficacy (compared to alternative interventions - 1 study) were equivocal. Comparisons with usual care showed no difference between intervention and control groups (perceived social support), some effect over time for both groups but more effect for intervention (distress), or mixed effects for intervention (family function). Comparisons with alternative interventions showed no difference between the intervention of interest and the alternative. This may indicate similar effects to the intervention of interest or lack of effect of both, and we are uncertain which option is likely. We found no clear evidence of effects of peer support interventions on any parent outcome, for any comparator; however, the certainty of evidence for each outcome was low to very low, and true effects may differ substantially from those reported here. We found no evidence of adverse events such as mood contagion, negative group interactions, or worsened psychological health. Qualitative data suggest that parents and carers value peer support interventions and appreciate emotional support.

Authors' conclusions: Parents and carers of children with complex needs perceive peer support interventions as valuable, but this review found no evidence of either benefit or harm. Currently, there is uncertainty about the effects of peer support interventions for parents and carers of children with complex needs. However, given the overall low to very low certainty of available evidence, our estimates showing no effects of interventions may very well change with further research of higher quality.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

The first author was previously the manager of a federally��funded peer support program for parents and carers of children with complex needs in Australia. All three authors worked at The Parenting Research Centre, which administers the program on behalf of the Australian government, for a substantial portion of the time taken to complete this review. An evaluation of the effectiveness and acceptability of this program was conducted; no publications or data from this evaluation to date met inclusion criteria for this review.

Figures

1
1
Study flow diagram.
2
2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 1: Psychological distress
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 2: Confidence and self‐efficacy
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 3: Perception of coping
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 4: Quality of life
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 5: Family functioning
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 6: Perceived social support
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1: Peer support vs usual care, Outcome 7: Confidence and skill at navigating medical services
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2: Peer support vs alternative intervention, Outcome 1: Psychological distress
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010618

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Aiello 2015 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Aiello CP, Ferrari DV. Teleaudiology: efficacy assessment of an online social network as a support tool for parents of children candidates for cochlear implant. CoDAS 2015;27(5):411-8. - PubMed
Boogerd 2017 {published data only}
    1. Boogerd E, Maas-Van Schaaijk NM, Sas TC, Clement-de Boers A, Smallenbroek M, Nuboer R, Noordam C, Verhaak CM. Sugarsquare, a web-based patient portal for parents of a child with Type 1 diabetes: A multicenter randomized controlled feasibility trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2017;19(8):e287. - PMC - PubMed
    1. Boogerd EA, Noordam C, Verhaak CM. The Sugarsquare study: protocol of a multicenter randomized controlled trial concerning a web-based patient portal for parents of a child with type 1 diabetes. BMC Pediatrics 2014;14:24. - PMC - PubMed
Boylan 2013 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Boylan C, Morgan S, Carthy A, Crowley S, Lyons J, Fitzpatrick C, Rickard E, Guerin S. A randomised controlled trial of a programme for parents and full-time carers of young people with self-harm and suicidal behaviour. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2013;22((Suppl 2)):S87-S313.
Ferrin 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ferrin M, Moreno-Granados JM, Salcedo-Marin MD, Ruiz-Veguilla M, Perez-Ayala V, Taylor E. Evaluation of a psychoeducation programme for parents of children and adolescents with ADHD: immediate and long-term effects using a blind randomized controlled trial. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 2013;23(8):637-47. [DOI: DOI 10.1007/s00787-013-0494-7] - PubMed
Flores 2009 {published data only}
    1. Flores G, Bridon C, Torres S, Perez R, Walter T, Brotanek J, Hua L, Tomany-Korman S. Improving asthma outcomes in minority children: A randomized, controlled trial of parent mentors. Pediatrics 2009;124:1522-0230. - PubMed
Ireys 1996 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Ireys HT, Sills EM, Kolodner KB. A social support intervention for parents of children with Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis: Results of a randomized trial. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1996;21(5):633-641. - PubMed
Ireys 2001 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Ireys HT, Chernoff R, DeVet KA, Kim Y. Maternal outcomes of a randomized controlled trial of a community-based support program for families of children with chronic illness. Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine 2001;155:771-777. - PubMed
Kutash 2011 {published data only}
    1. Kutash K, Duchnowski AJ, Green AL, Ferron JM. Supporting parents who have youth with emotional disturbances through a Parent-to-Parent support program: A proof of concept study using random assignment. Administration and Policy in Mental Health 2011;38:412-427. - PubMed
Kutash 2013 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Kutash K, Duchnowski AJ, Green AL, Ferron J. Effectiveness of the Parent Connectors Program: Results from a randomized controlled trial. School Mental Health 2013;5:192-208.
McCallion 2004 {published data only}
    1. McCallion P, Janicki MP, Kolomer SR. Controlled evaluation of support groups for grandparent caregivers of children with developmental disabilities and delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation 2004;109(5):352-361. - PubMed
Preyde 2003 {published data only}
    1. Preyde M, Ardal F. Effectiveness of a parent "buddy" program for mothers of very preterm infants in a neonatal intensive care unit. Canadian Medical Association Journal April 15, 2003;168(8):969-973. - PMC - PubMed
Rhodes 2008 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Rhodes P, Baillee A, Brown J, Madden S. Can parent-to-parent consultation improve the effectiveness of the Maudsley model of family-based treatment for anorexia nervosa? A randomized control trial. Journal of Family Therapy 2008;30:96-108.
Roberts 2011 {published data only}
    1. Roberts J, Williams K, Carter M, Evans D, Parmenter T, Silove N, Clark T, Warren A. A randomised controlled trial of two early intervention programs for young children with autism: Centre-based with parent program and home-based. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2011;5:1553-1566.
Ruffolo 2005 {published data only}
    1. Ruffolo MC, Kuhn MT, Evans ME. Support, Empowerment, and Education: A study of multiple family group psychoeducation. Journal of emotional and behavioral disorders 2005;13(4):200-212.
Scharer 2009 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Scharer K, Colon E, Moneyham L, Hussey J, Tavakoli A, Shugart M. A comparison of two types of social support for mothers of mentally ill children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing 2009;22(2):86-98. - PMC - PubMed
Silver 1997 {published and unpublished data}
    1. Silver EJ, Ireys HT, Bauman LJ, Stein REK. Psychological outcomes of a support intervention in mothers of children with ongoing health conditions: the Parent-to-Parent Network. Journal of Community Psychology 1997;25(3):249-264.
Singer 1994 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Singer GHS, Glang A, Nixon C, Cooley E, Kerus KA, Williams D, Powers LE. A comparison of two psychosocial interventions for parents of children with acquired brain injury: An exploratory study. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 1994;9(4):38-49.
Singer 1999 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Singer GHS, Marquis J, Powers LK, Blanchard L, Divenere N, Santelli B, Ainbinder JG, Sharp M. A multi-site evaluation of Parent to Parent programs for parents of children with disabilities. Journal of Early Intervention 1999;22(3):217-229.
Sullivan‐Bolyai 2004 {published data only}
    1. Sullivan-Bolyai S, Grey M, Deatrick J, Gruppuso P, Giraitis P, Tamborlane W. Helping other mothers effectively work at raising young children with Type 1 Diabetes. The Diabetes Educator 2004;30(3):476-484. - PubMed
Sullivan‐Bolyai 2010 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Rearick EM. Parents of children newly diagnosed with Type 1 Diabetes.. The Diabetes Educator 2011;37(4):508-518. - PubMed
    1. Sullivan-Bolyai S, Bova C, Lee M, Gruppuso PA. Mentoring fathers of children newly diagnosed with T1DM. American Journal of Maternal and Child Nursing 2011;36(4):224-231. - PubMed
    1. Sullivan-Bolyai S, Bova C, Leung K, Trudeau A, Lee M, Gruppuso. Social Support to Empower Parents (STEP): An intervention for parents of young children newly diagnosed with Type 1 Diabetes. The Diabetes Educator 2010;36:88-97. - PubMed
Swallow 2014 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Swallow VM, Knafl K, Santacroce S, Campbell M, Hall AG, Smith T, Carolan I. An interactive health communication application for supporting parents managing childhood long-term conditions: Outcomes for a randomized controlled feasibility trial. JMIR Research Protocols 2014;3(4):e69. - PMC - PubMed
Wysocki 2008 {published data only (unpublished sought but not used)}
    1. Wysocki T, Harris MA, Buckloh LM, Mertlich D, Sobel Lochrie A, Taylor A, Sadler M, White NH. Randomized, controlled trial of behavioral family systems therapy for diabetes: Maintenance and generalization of effects on Parent-Adolescent Communication. Behavior Therapy 2008;39:33-46. - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Chesney 1989 {unpublished data only}
    1. Chesney BCK. Empowering parents of children with cancer: The role of self-help groups. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Sociology) in The University of Michigan 1989.
Clifford 2013 {published data only}
    1. Clifford T, Minnes P. Logging on: evaluating an online support group for parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Austism and Developmental Disorders 2013;43:1662-1675. - PubMed
Flores 2008 {published data only}
    1. Flores G, Snowden-Bridon C, Torres S, Walter T, Brotanck S, Tomany-Korman S. A randomised controlled trial (RCT) of the effectiveness of Parent Mentors in improving asthma outcomes in minority children.. In: Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. Vol. 121, issue 2, Supplement 1. February 2008:S794.
Ji 2014 {published data only}
    1. Ji B, Sun M, Yi R, Tang S. Multidisciplinary parent education for caregivers of children with Austism Spectrum Disorders. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 2014;28:319-326. - PubMed
Kang 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kang HS, Kim WO, Jeong Y, Kim SY, Yoo KY. Effect of a self-help program for mothers of hemophilic children in Koria. Haemophilia 2012;18:892-897. - PubMed
Kreuger 1998 {unpublished data only}
    1. Kreuger BD. Social support intervention for mothers of typical and special needs infants and toddlers: An outcome evaluation. A dissertation submitted to the Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Educational Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, in candidacy for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1998.
Lewis 1972 {published data only}
    1. Lewis J. Effects of group procedure with parents of MR children.. Mental retardation 1972;10(6):14-15. - PubMed
Madden 2010 {unpublished data only}
    1. Madden LM. Parent support groups: Impact of parental adjustment and perceptions of children's behaviour difficulties. A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in School/Applied Child Psychology 2010.
Osman 2017 {published data only}
    1. Osman F, Flacking R, Schön U-K, Klingberg-Alvin M. A support program for Somali-born parents on child behaviour problems. Pediatrics 2017;139(3):e20162764. - PubMed
Picard 2014 {published data only}
    1. Picard I, Morin D, De Mondehare L. Psychoeducational program for parents of adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities 2014;11(4):279-292.
Samadi 2012 {published data only}
    1. Samadi SA, McConkey R, Kelly G. Enhancing parental well-being and coping through a family centred short course for Iranian parents of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Autism 2013;17(1):27-43. - PubMed
Schultz 1993 {published data only}
    1. Schultz CL, Schultz NC, Bruce EJ, Smyrnios KX, Carey LB, Carey CL. Psychoeducational support for parents of children with intellectual disability: An outcome study. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 1993;40(3):205-216.
Shu 2005 {published data only}
    1. Shu B-C, Lung F-W. The effect of support group on the mental health and quality of life for mothers with autistic children. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 2005;49(1):47-53. - PubMed
Swallow 2012 {published data only}
    1. Swallow V, Knafl K, Santacroce S, Hall A, Smith T, Campbell M, Webb NJA. The Online Parent Information adn Support project, meeting parents' information and support needs for home-based management of childhood chronic kidney disease: research protocol. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2012;68(9):2095-2102. - PubMed
Vadasy 1985 {published data only}
    1. Vadasy PF, Fewell RR, Meyer DJ, Greenberg MT. Supporting fathers of handicapped young children: Preliminary findings of program effects. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities 1985;5:151-163.
Verduyn 2003 {published data only}
    1. Verduyn C, Barrowclough C, Roberts J, Tarrier N, Harrington R. Maternal depression and child behaviour problems: Randomised placebo-controlled trial of a cognitive-behavioural group intervention. British Journal of Psychiatry 2003;183:342-348. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

Carty 2018 {published data only}
    1. Carty CL, Soghier LM, Kritikos KI, Tuchman LK, Jiggetts M, Glass P, Streisand R, Fratantoni KR. The Giving Parents Support Study: A randomized clinical trial of a parent navigator intervention to improve outcomes after neonatal intensive care unit discharge. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2018;70:117-134. - PubMed
Chien 2018 {published data only}
    1. Chien WT, Bressington D, , Chan SWC. A randomized controlled trial on mutual support group intervention for families of people with recent-onset psychosis: A four-year follow-up. Frontiers in psychiatry 2018;9:710. - PMC - PubMed
Jamison 2017 {published data only}
    1. Jamison JM, Fourie E, Siper PM, Trelles MP, George-Jones J, Buxbaum Grice A, Krata J, Holl E, Shaoul J, Hernandez B, et al. Examining the efficacy of a family peer advocate model for Black and Hispanic caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Jounal of autism and developmental disorders 2017;Article in press:10.1007/s10803-017-3045-0. - PubMed
Koren 2013 {published data only}
    1. Koren E, Kupriyanova T. Family burden-focused psychosocial therapy with parents and social functioning of children and adolescents with schizophrenic spectrum disorders. European Psychiatry 2013;28(Supplement 1):1.
Pugh 1981 {published data only}
    1. Pugh G, Hattersley J, Tennant L, Wilcock P. Parents as partners: intervention schemes and group work with parents of handicapped children. National Children's Bureau, London (UK).
Shekarabi Ahari 2012 {published data only}
    1. Shekarabi-Ahari G, Younesi J, Borjali A, Damavandi SA. The effectiveness of group hope therapy on hope and depression of mothers with children suffering from cancer in Tehran. Iranian Journal of Cancer Prevention 2012;5(4):183. - PMC - PubMed

Additional references

Ainbinder 1998
    1. Ainbinder JG, Blanchard LW, Singer GHS, Sullivan ME, Powers LK, Marquis JG, et al. A qualitative study of Parent to Parent support for parents of children with special needs. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1998;23(2):99-109. - PubMed
Armstrong 2005
    1. Armstrong MI, Birnie-Lefcovitch S, Ungar MT. Pathways between social support, family well being, quality of parenting, and child resilience: what we know. Journal of Child and Family Studies 2005;14(2):269-81.
Baker 2002
    1. Baker B, Blacher J, Crnic K, Edelbrock C. Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three-year-old children with and without developmental delays. American Journal on Mental Retardation 2002;107(6):433-44. - PubMed
Banach 2010
    1. Banach M, Iudice J, Conway L, Couse LJ. Family support and empowerment: Post autism diagnosis support group for parents. Social Work with Groups: A Journal of Community and Clinical Practice 2010;33(1):69-83.
Barlow 2006
    1. Barlow J, Ellard D. The psychosocial well-being of children with chronic disease, their parents and siblings: an overview of the research evidence base. Child: Care Health & Development 2006;32(1):19-31. - PubMed
Beck 1988
    1. Beck AT, Steer RA, Carbin MG. Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation.. Clinical Psychology Review 1988;8(1):77-100.
Behr 1992
    1. Behr SK, Murphy DL, Summers JA. User’s Manual: Kansas Inventory of Parental Perceptions.. The University of Kansas Beach Center on Disability 1992.
Blacher 2007
    1. Blacher J, Baker BL. Positive impact of intellectual disability on families. American Journal on Mental Retardation 2007;112(5):330-348. - PubMed
Blanchard 1996
    1. Blanchard L, Powers L, Ginsberg C, Marquis J, Singer GHS. The Coping Efficacy Inventory: Measuring parents perceptions of coping with a child with a disability and family problems.. Unpublished manuscript. University of North Carolina Medical School, Chapel Hill, N.C. 1996.
Bourgeois 2010
    1. Bourgeois A, LeUnes A, Meyers M. Full-scale and short-form of the profile of mood states: a factor analytic comparison. Journal of Sport Behavior 2010;33(4):355–376.
Bourke‐Taylor 2010
    1. Bourke-Taylor H, Howie L, Law M. Impact of caring for a school-aged child with a disability: understanding of mothers' perspectives. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal 2010;57:127-69. - PubMed
Campagnolo 2002
    1. Campagnolo DI, Filart RA, Millis SR, Lann DE. Appropriateness Of The Ilfeld Psychiatric Symptom Index as a screening tool for depressive symptomatology in persons with spinal cord injury. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine 2002;25(2):129-132. - PubMed
Canary 2008
    1. Canary HE. Creating supportive connections: a decade of research on support for families of children with disabilities. Health Communication 2008;23(5):413-26. - PubMed
Cash‐Gibson 2012
    1. Cash-Gibson L, Felix LM, Minorikawa N, Pappas Y, Gunn, LH, Majeed A, et al. Automated telephone communication systems for preventive healthcare and management of long-term conditions. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 7. Art. No: CD009921. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009921] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Chamberlain 2017
    1. Chamberlain C, O'Mara-Eves A, Oliver S, Caird JR, Perlen SM, Eades SJ, et al. Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2017, Issue 2. Art. No: CD001055. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001055.pub5] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
CHCP 2012
    1. Cochrane Consumers and Communication Review Group. Outcomes of Interest to the Cochrane Consumers & Communication Review Group. http://www.latrobe.edu.au/chcp/assets/downloads/Outcomes.pdf January 2012 (accessed 30 May 2012).
Cheshire 2010
    1. Cheshire A, Barlow JH, Powell LA. The psychosocial well-being of parents of children with cerebral palsy: a comparison study. Disability and Rehabilitation 2010;32:1673-7. - PubMed
Coppola 2013
    1. Coppola G, Cassibba R, Bosco A, Papagna S. In search of social support in the NICU: features, benefits and antecedents of parents' tendency to share with others the premature birth of their baby. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 2013;26(17):1737-1741. - PubMed
Dale 2008
    1. Dale J, Caramlau IO, Lindenmeyer A, Williams SM. Peer support telephone calls for improving health. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 4. Art. No: CD006903. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006903.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Davies 2005
    1. Davies S, Hall D. "Contact A Family": professionals and parents in partnership. Achives of Disease in Childhood 2005;90:1053-7. - PMC - PubMed
Dellve 2006
    1. Dellve L, Samuelsson L, Tallborn A, Fasth A, Lillemor R-M. Stress and well-being among parents of children with rare diseases: a prospective intervention study. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2006;53(4):392-402. - PubMed
Doull 2004
    1. Doull M, O'Connor AM, Wells GA, Tugwell P, Welch V. Peer-based interventions for reducing morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected women. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 2. Art. No: CD004774. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004774] - DOI
Doull 2005
    1. Doull M, O'Connor AM, Welch V, Tugwell P, Wells GA. Peer support strategies for improving the health and well-being of individuals with chronic diseases. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, Issue 3. Art. No: CD005352. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005352] - DOI
Duarte 2005
    1. Duarte CS, Bordin IA, Yazigi L, Mooney J. Factors associated with stress in mothers of children with autism. Autism 2005;9(4):416-27. - PubMed
Dunkel‐Schetter 1987
    1. Dunkel-Schetter C, Folkman S, Lazarus RS. Correlates of social support receipt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1987;53(1):71-80. - PubMed
Eysenbach 2004
    1. Eysenbach G, Powell J, Englesakis M, Rizo C, Stern A. Health related virtual communities and electronic support groups: systematic review of the effects of online peer to peer interactions. BMJ 2004;328:1-6. - PMC - PubMed
González‐Fraile 2021
    1. González-Fraile E, Ballesteros J, Rueda J-R, Santos-Zorrozúa B, Solà I, McCleery J. Remotely delivered information, training and support for informal caregivers of people with dementia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 04 January 2021, Issue 1. Art. No: CD006440. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006440.pub3] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Gray 2002
    1. Gray DE. 'Everybody is just embarrassed': felt and enacted stigma among parents of children with high functioning autism. Sociology of Health & Illness 2002;24(6):734-49.
Green 2007
    1. Green SE. "We’re tired, not sad": Benefits and burdens of mothering a child with a disability. Social Science & Medicine 2007;64(1):150-163. - PubMed
Hartman 1992
    1. Hartman A, Radin M, McConnell B. Parent-to-parent support: a critical component of health care services for families. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing 1992;15(1):55-67. - PubMed
Hastings 2002
    1. Hastings SE, Taunt HM. Positive perceptions in families of children with developmental disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation 2002;107(2):116-127. - PubMed
Hastings 2004
    1. Hastings R, Beck A. Practitioner review: stress intervention for parents of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2004;45(8):1338-49. - PubMed
Hays 1995
    1. Hays RD, Sherbourne CD, Mazel RM. User's manual for the medical outcomes study (MOS) core measures of health-related quality of life. Santa Monica, California: RAND, 1995.
Higgins 2011a
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Higgins 2011b
    1. Higgins JPT, Altman DG, Sterne JAC (editors). Chapter 8 Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Hoffman 2006
    1. Hoffman L, Marquis J, Poston D, Summers JA, Turnbull A. Assessing family outcomes: psychometric evaluation of the beach center family quality of life scale. Journal of Marriage and Family 2006;68(4):1069-1083.
Hogan 2002
    1. Hogan BE, Lindena W, Najarian B. Social support interventions: do they work? Clinical Psychology Review 2002;22:381-440. - PubMed
Ignaki 2017
    1. Ignaki TK, Orehek E. On the benefits of giving social support: when, why, and how support providers gain by caring for others. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2017;26(2):109-113.
Iscoe 1985
    1. Iscoe L, Bordelon K. Pilot parents: peer support for parents of handicapped children. Children's Health Care 1985;14(2):103-9.
Kerr 2000
    1. Kerr SM, McIntosh J. Coping when a child has a disability: exploring the impact of parent-to-parent support. Child: Care, Health and Development 2000;26(4):309-21. - PubMed
Kessler 2010
    1. Kessler RC, Green JG, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Bromet E, Cuitan M, et al. Screening for serious mental illness in the general population with the K6 screening scale: results from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) survey initiative.. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 2010;19(Supplement 1):4-22. - PMC - PubMed
Kew 2016
    1. Kew KM, Carr R, Crossingham I. Lay-led and peers support interventions for adolescents with asthma. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 8. - PMC - PubMed
King 2000
    1. King G, Stewart D, King S, Law M. Organizational characteristics and issues affecting the longevity of self-help groups for parents of children with special needs. Qualitative Health Research 2000;10(2):225-41. - PubMed
Kirk 2015
    1. Kirk S, Fallon D, Fraser C, Robinson G, Vassallo G. Supporting parents following childhood traumatic brain injury: a qualitative study to examine information and emotional support needs across key care transitions. Child: Care, Health and Development. 2015;41(2):303-313. - PubMed
Knight 1983
    1. Knight RG, Waal-Manning HJ, Spears GF. Some norms and reliability data for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Zung Self-Rating Depression scale. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 1983;22:245–249. - PubMed
Koeske 1992
    1. Koeske GF, Koeske RD. Parenting locus of control: measurement, construct validation, and a proposed conceptual model. Social Work Research & Abstracts 1992;28(3):37-46.
Lavender 2013
    1. Lavender T, Richens Y, Milan SJ, Smyth RMD, Dowswell T. Telephone support for women during pregnancy and the first six weeks postpartum. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 7. Art. No: CD009338. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009338.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Law 2001
    1. Law M, King S, Stewart D, King G. The perceived effects of parent-led support groups for parents of children with disabilities. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics 2001;21(2/3):29-48. - PubMed
Lazarus 1987
    1. Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality 1987;1:141-69.
Lee 2007
    1. Lee S, Yoo JS, Yoo IY. Parenting stress in mothers of children with congenital heart disease. Asian Nursing Research 2007;2(3):116-24. - PubMed
Lovibond 1995
    1. Lovibond PF, Lovibond SH. The structure of negative emotional states: comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour research and therapy 1995;33(3):335-343. - PubMed
Mas 2016
    1. Mas JM. The adaptation process of families with children with intellectual disabilities in Catalonia. Infants and Young Children 2016;29(4):335-351.
McConnell 2011
    1. McConnell D, Breitkreuz R, Savage A. From financial hardship to child difficulties: main and moderating effects of perceived social support. Child: Care, Health and Development 2011;37(5):679-91. - PubMed
McConnell 2014
    1. McConnell D, Savage A, Breitkreuz R. Resilience in families raising children with disabilities and behavior problems. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2014;35(4):833-848. - PubMed
McGuire 2004
    1. McGuire BK. Mothers of children with disabilities: occupational concerns and solutions. OTJR-Occupational Participation and Health 2004;24(2):54-63.
Montazeri 2003
    1. Montazeri A, Harirchi AM, Shariati M, Garmaroudi G, Ebadi M, Fateh A. The 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12): translation and validation study of the Iranian version.. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2003;1:66. - PMC - PubMed
Niela‐Vilén 2014
    1. Niela-Vilén H, Axelin A, Salanterä S, Melender H-L. Internet-based peer support for parents: a systematic integrative review. International Journal of Nursing Studies 2014;51(11):1527-1537. - PubMed
Noyes 2011a
    1. Noyes J, Lewin S. Chapter 5: Extracting qualitative evidence. In: Noyes J, Booth A, Hannes K, Harden A, Harris J, Lewin S, et al, editors(s). Supplementary Guidance for Inclusion of Qualitative Research in Cochrane Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Cochrane Collaboration Qualitative Methods Group, 2011.
Noyes 2011b
    1. Noyes J, Popay J, Pearson A, Hannes K, Booth A. Chapter 20: Qualitative research and Cochrane reviews. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Ortega 2002
    1. Ortega D. How much support is too much? Parenting efficacy and social support. Children and Youth Service Review 2002;24(11):853-76.
Popay 2006
    1. Popay J, Roberts H, Sowden A, Petticrew M, Arai L, Rodgers M, et al. Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews: a product from the ESRC Methods Programme. Provided by authors via http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/shm/research/nssr/research/dissemination/publ... 2006.
Quine 1991
    1. Quine L, Pahl J. Stress and coping in mothers caring for a child with severe learning difficulties: a test of Lazarus' transactional model of coping. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 1991;1:57-70.
Rearick 2011
    1. Rearick EM, Sullivan-Bolyai S, Bova C, Knafl K. Parents of children newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes: experiences with social support and family management. The Diabetes Educator 2011;37(4):508-518. - PubMed
Reitman 2002
    1. Reitman D, Currier RO, Stickle TR. A critical evaluation of the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in a Head Start population. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 2002;31(3):384-392. - PubMed
Resch 2010
    1. Resch JA, Mireles G, Benz MR, Grenwelge C, Peterson R, Zhang DL. Giving parents a voice: a qualitative study of the challenges experienced by parents of children with disabilities. Rehabilitation Psychology 2010;55(2):139-50. - PubMed
Review Manager 2014 [Computer program]
    1. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration Review Manager (RevMan). Version 5.3. Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2014.
Rhodes 2005
    1. Rhodes P, Brown J, Baillee A. The Parents Versus Anorexia Scale: A brief measure of parental efficacy in the family-based treatment of anorexia. European Eating Disorders Review 2005;13:399-405.
Ryan 2011
    1. Ryan R, Hill S, Prictor M, McKenzie J. Study quality guide. Cochrane Consumers and Communication Review Group May 2011;http://www.latrobe.edu.au/chcp/cochrane/resources.html; accessed 30 April 2012.
Ryan 2016
    1. Ryan R, Synnot A, Hill S. Describing results. Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group, available at: http://cccrg.cochrane.org/author-resources June 2016.
Santelli 1996
    1. Santelli B, Turnbull A, Sergeant J, Lerner EP, Marquis JG. Parent to parent programs: parent preferences for supports. Infants and Young Children 1996;9(1):53-62.
Santelli 1997
    1. Santelli B, Turnbull A, Marquis J, Lerner E. Parent-to-parent programs: a resource for parents and professionals. Journal of Early Intervention 1997;21(1):73-83.
Sartore 2013
    1. Sartore G, Lagioia V, Mildon R. Peer support interventions for parents and carers of children with complex needs. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue CD010618. Art. No: CD010618. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010618] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Schünemann 2011
    1. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JPT, Vist GE, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 11: Presenting results and 'Summary of Findings' tables. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Schünemann 2013
    1. Schünemann H, Brożek J, Guyatt G, Oxman A. Handbook for grading the quality of evidence and the strength of recommendations using the GRADE approach.. http://gdt.guidelinedevelopment.org/app/handbook/handbook.html Updated October 2013.
Schwartz 1999
    1. Schwartz CE, Sendor M. Helping others helps oneself: response shift effects in peer support. Social Science and Medicine 1999;48:1563-75. - PubMed
Shilling 2013
    1. Shilling V, Morris C, Thompson-Coon J, Ukoumunne O, Rogers M, Logan S. Peer support for parents of children with chronic disabling conditions: a systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2013;55(7):602-609. - PubMed
Stein 1980
    1. Stein RK, Riessman CK. The development of an Impact-on-family scale: preliminary findings.. Medical Care 1980;28(4):465-472.. - PubMed
Sterling 1996
    1. Sterling YM, Jones LC, Johnson DH, Bowen MR. Parents' resources and home management of the care of chronically ill infants. Journal of the Society of Pediatric Nurses 1996;1(3):103-109. - PubMed
Sterne 2011
    1. Sterne JAC, Sutton AJ, Ioannidis JP, Terrin N, Jones DR, Lau J, et al. Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2011;342:d4002. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.d4002] - DOI - PubMed
Strunk 2010
    1. Strunk JA. Respite care for families of special needs children: a systematic review. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities 2010;22(6):615-30.
Tak 2002
    1. Tak Y, McCubbin M. Family stress, perceived social support and coping following the diagnosis of a child's congenital heart disease. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2002;39(2):190-8. - PubMed
Treanor 2019
    1. Treanor CJ, Santin O, Prue G, Coleman H, Cardwell CR, O'Halloran P, et al. Psychosocial interventions for informal caregivers of people living with cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 17 June 2019, Issue 6. Art. No: CD009912. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009912.pub2] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Twoy 2007
    1. Twoy R, Connolly P, Novak J. Coping strategies used by parents of children with autism. Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners 2007;19:251-60. - PubMed
Van Riper 1992
    1. Van Riper M, Ryff C, Pridham K. Parental and family well-being in families of children with Down Syndrome: a comparative study. Research in Nursing and Health 1992;15:227-35. - PubMed
Varni 2004
    1. Varni JW, Sandra AS, Tasha MB, Paige ED, Pamela D. The PedsQL™ family impact module: Preliminary reliability and validity. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2;1:1-6. - PMC - PubMed
Zimet 1998
    1. Zimet GD, Dahlem NW, Zimet SG, Gordon KF. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment 1998;52:30-41.