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International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science (IRJES)
ISSN (Online) 2319-183X, (Print) 2319-1821
Volume 6, Issue 7 (July 2017), PP.66-85
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66 | Page
A Review of Severe Plastic Deformation
*
Sheik Hassan M
1
,Sanjeev Sharma
2
,Brijesh Kumar
3
1,2(Department of Mechanical EngineeringAmity University Gurgaon Haryana, India,
3(Center of Nano TechnologyAmity University Gurgaon Haryana, India,
Corresponding author: *Sanjeev Sharma
ABSTRACT: This article reviews about Ultrafine grained (UFG) materials processed by Severe Plastic
Deformation. From the period of 1950’s, the researchers made a fountain stone for this technique. Over the last
decades, this SPD technique experienced an enormous growth among the research field. There was a
development of different methods of SPD, production of various materials by SPD with improved and
interesting results based on our requirement. Moreover, different post processing techniques will also help to
enhance the property of the SPD processed material. This paper reviews the overall development of this
technique, various methods of SPD, discussed about the enhancement of the properties and finally concluded
with some specific challenges and issues faced by the modern researchers. It may be helpful to those who wants
specialise in bulk nanomaterials produced by SPD.
Keywords: Severe plastic deformation; Ultrafine-grained materials; Nano-Structured Material; Properties.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Grain size is a key factor which affecting nearly all aspects of the physical, mechanical and chemical
behaviour of polycrystalline metals to the surroundingmedia. Hence, modification of grain size can able to
design materials with desired properties. Physical, mechanical and chemical properties can benefit greatly from
the reduction of grain size. One of the possible ways for the microstructural refinement of metals is Severe
Plastic Deformation (SPD. Recent studies [1–4] toldaancient model for grain refinement which gives a path of
modern era. The modern SPD technology begins from ancient work by P.W. Bridgman whodeveloped the
techniques for materialsprocessing through a combination of high hydrostaticpressure and shear deformation
[5,6]. In 1950s, Bridgman defined the process of SPD which evolved into new definition suitable for current
scenarioas ―any method of metal forming under an extensivehydrostatic pressure that may be used to impose a
veryhigh strain on a bulk solid without the introduction of anysignificant change in the overall dimensions of the
sampleand having the ability to produce exceptional grain refinement‖[7]. Carreker and Hibbard [8]showed that
the yield strength of high-purity copperbenefits greatly from grain. They also pointed outthat the effect of the
initial grain size vanishes at strains largerthan 0.1 and for that reason the grain size has less influence on the
strength under monotonic loading. Asimilar effect is also happen on fatigue property where the grain sizeof
wavy-slip materials has no bearing on the fatigue limit.These observations can also be associated with
dislocation substructure and size of thesubstructure.For the deformationand recrystallization behavior of metals
and the effect ofevolving texture on the resultant properties,Gow and Cahn [9] explained thesignificance of
crystallographic texture. Bell and Cahn[10] pointed out several features of mechanical twinning,which play a
vital role in plastic deformation whenaccommodation by dislocation slip is hindered. Beck [11]emphasized the
possibility of relieving theeffects of work-hardeningby post-processing recovery. Segalet al. [12]developed the
method of equal-channel angularpressing (ECAP), which later evolved into SPD technique. As seen in
thefollowing sections, these ideasunderlying the modern concepts of SPD.
Valiev et.al [13,14] begins the new possibilities for improvingthe properties of metallic materials given
by SPD, which shows the relationship between theenhanced strength and the extreme grain refinementimparted
by SPD processing to a range of metals andalloys. Over the last decade, the nano-SPD community which having
animpressive group of researchers delivers a thousands of publicationson ultrafine-grained (UFG) and
nanostructuredmaterials produced by SPD.Some more relevant articles on the subject can be found inthe
proceedings of symposia on UFG materials [15,16] andconferences of nanoSPD [17,18]. Further useful sources
arethe reviews [19,20], special issues of Advanced EngineeringMaterials [21], Materials Science and
Engineering A [22]and Materials Transactions [23,24].
SPD processing techniques becomes so popular because of enhancing the strength characteristicsof
conventional metallic materials in a peculiar way. It is up to the factor of eight for pure metalssuch as copper
and 30–50% for alloys [7,25].In spite of impressive property improvement achievedfrom SPD techniques, its
application by industries has beenrather inactive. But now-a-days, things are now starting tochange, and there is
a common feeling in the nanoSPDcommunity that major breakthroughs in terms of industry scale applications of
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SPD based technologies are about to applicable.In thisarticle we reviewed thatthe evolution of SPD process up
to the current scenario and the possibilities to achieve future trends which are tobe expected from SPD
processing technologies. Special importancehas been placed on the scientifically challenging aspects ofSPD
rather on technological issues.
II.
METHODS OF SPD
Among the methodsformulated for grain refinement,SPD techniques are more popular and are taken for
thefocus of the present review. These techniques became greatpopularity because of their ability to produce
considerablegrain refinement in fully dense, bulk scale work pieces,thus giving more promise for structural
applications. Thegrain sizes achieved from SPD methods lie within the range ofsubmicrometer (100–1000 nm)
and nanometer (<100 nm). Previously, SPD-processedmaterials with such grain sizes are generallyreferred to as
nanoSPD materials [7].Now-a-days, it is named as nanostructured materialsaccording to the conventional
definition. More comprehensivereviews have been focused on various nanostructured processingmaterials
through SPD techniques [20,26–31]. We suggest the reader to theoriginal works for specific details and here
only brief outlinefor SPD has been given.
After the historic work by Bridgman mentioned above [6,33], Langford and Cohen [34] and Rack and
Cohen [35] in 1960s revealed that the microstructure of Fe–0.003% C subjected to high strains by wire drawing
wasrefined to sub grain sizes in the 200–500 nm range. Most of the sub-boundaries were low angle
onthesemicrostructures, so it could not be regarded as proper UFG inthe sense of the commonly accepted
definitions [7]. Indeed, it is the prevalence of high angle grain boundaries that is commonly considered a
signature of UFG materials produced by SPD. This constitutes a clear boundary linebetween nanoSPD materials
and nano-structured materials which is the conventional materials in modern days with subgrain structures
produced by cold rolling. This difference make SPD process a step ahead from all other process for
microstructurerefinement by deformation to gigantic strains.
A large plastic strain imparted on a work-piece is a formidable and technically challenging task. It
should requires a considerable importance on tool design, which on one hand during material forming, it should
be durable enough to sustain repetitive high loads and on the
Table 1: Schematic illustrations of SPD techniques
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Other hand it should be suitable for materials processing without causing damage to the work piece. A
peculiar feature of SPD processing is that the high strain is imposed on material without any significant change
in the overall dimensions of the workpiece. This is attained due to special tool geometries which prevent free
flow of the material and will able to produce a significant hydrostatic pressure. The presence of this hydrostatic
pressure is a sign for attaining the high strains which is the requirement for achieving exceptional grain
refinement. Many crystalline materials including brittle under ordinary conditions can ablebe deformed to large
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strains without failure. Nowadays many varieties of SPD techniques, which employ this generic feature of high
hydrostatic pressure and are readily available for fabrication, gave a great variety of UFG materials.
2.1 Basic SPD processes
Equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) is the most highlydeveloped SPD processing technique (Table
1a). When the billet passes throughthe area where the two channels meet,there is an introduction of a simple
shear strain. The cross sectionaldimension of the billet remainsconstant. Therefore, the process permits
repetitive pressing which leads to accumulation of verylarge strains. There are some different variants ofECAP
processesbased on the rotations of the billet about thepressing axis between the passes are generallyleads to
different results in terms of the microstructureand texture produced. The definitions of these different
ECAProutes are referred below[13,14]. The key advantagesand fundamentals of ECAPwere first formulatedby
V. Segal in older publications [12,38-42]. He defined ECAP as ―a technique of deformation to bestow intensive,
uniform and oriented simple shear formaterials processing‖. He also showed that ECAPis effective if (i)
frictionis kept at minimum between the billet and the die walls; (ii) the angle between the channels isnearly to be
90�; and (iii) the sharp outer corner is fully filledwhich ensuring that the shear zone is as narrow as possible. The
first requirement developed by implementing surface hardening ofthe channel walls, mobile walls [37,43], etc.,
and theintroduction of new effective lubricants [36,44]. The thirdrequirement is to understanding the
significanceof back-pressure for processing of billets with uniformmicrostructure and improved mechanical
properties[43,45,46]. By following Segal’s philosophy, samples withuniform microstructure throughout the
billet could be fabricated[47,48].
High pressure torsion (HPT) involves a combination of high pressure withtorsional straining (Table
1b). A main disadvantage of this method is thatonly small coin shaped samples can be processed, which is
typically 10–15 mm indiameter and 1 mm in thickness[28]. The HPT process isprimarily used for research
purposes due to size restriction.Another important issue on HPT is non-uniformity in deformation.In HPT
process, theshear strain at the rotation axis should be zero and increasinglinearly in the radial direction if the
geometry of the sampledoes not change. Thus, it shows that the material nearthe rotation axis of the work
pieceisundeformed.Along with the other disadvantages, the compressive pressure andthe number of revolutions
of the anvil are sufficiently large is also notableas showed in Fig. 1 [49–51]. Vorhauer and Pippan [52]
emphasizedthis inability by the fact that it is virtually impossible tomake an ideal HPT deformation because of
the misalignmentof the anvilsaxes. Alternatively, the development ofa uniform strain (Fig. 2) and
homogeneousmicrostructure was decribed in terms of gradient plasticitytheory coupled with the
microstructurallybased constitutive modelling [53, 54].
Fig. 1 Vickers microhardness (Hv) of HPT samples after different numbers of turns (N) as a function of the
distance from the centre of the specimen [53].
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Fig. 2. Accumulated shear strain as a function of the distance from the torsion axis for the first-order gradient
model [53].
Accumulative roll-bonding (ARB) was introduced by Saito et al. [55] in 1998 (Table 1c).This process
overcomes major limitations likelow productivity,small work-piece size of the latter etc.., which are faced by
ECAP and HPT. Saito et al. explains the process as a metal sheet is rolled to 50% thickness reduction. Then, the
rolled sheet is cut in two halves and both halves are stacked together by preparing the contact surfaces with
degreasing and wire brushing, thus restoring the original thickness of the sheet. The sequence of rolling, cutting,
surface preparing and stacking operations are repeated continuously so that ultimately a large strain imparted on
the material. ARB was successfully applied to commercial-purity (CP) Al, theAl–Mg alloy AA5083 and
interstitial-free steel [56]. In addition, ARB can also be applied for the production of metal matrix composites by
covering mixed powders and subjecting them to a process of rollbonding [57].
Multi-axial forging was introduced as a technique for grain refinement in 1990s [58–60] (Table 1d). It
is also known as Multiple Direction Forging (MDF) which work under three orthogonal directions. Grain
refinementduring MDF is usually associated with dynamic recrystallization due to the performance of the
process under the temperature interval of 0.1–0.5Tm, whereTm is the melting temperature.The method canbe
used for grain refinement in brittle materialseven thoughin elevated temperatures. This method is also used for
the manufacturing of large-sizebillets with microcrystalline (UFG) structures [61].
Twist extrusion (TE) is introduced byBeygelzimer et al. as a shear deformation process [62–64] (Table
1e). The process is simple where a billet is extruded through a twist die. The advantage of this process is its high
upscalingcapacity. Non-uniform deformation is the main limitation for this process as like faced by HPTwhere
the deformation nearer to the extrusion axis is smaller.Further,Orlovet al. [65] noted that this technique is not
much efficientthan ECAP or HPT.
2.2. Derivative SPD processes
Although the above basic processes are successful, some exotic methods were developed for different shapes
and sizes. These are named as derivative SPD processes. A list of these techniques is listed below:
•
repetitive side extrusion [66];
•
rotary die ECAP [67];
•
parallel channel ECAP [68];
•
hydrostatic extrusion [69–71]
•
hydrostatic extrusioncombined with torsion [72];
•
repetitive corrugating and straightening (RCS) [73–75];
•
constrained groove pressing [76];
•
cyclic extrusion–compression (CEC) [77];
•
cyclic closed-die forging (CCDF) [78];
•
cone–cone method (CCM) [79];
•
cryogenic rolling [80,81];
•
asymmetric rolling (ASR) [82];
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•
continuous frictional angular extrusion (CFAE) [83,84];
•
friction stir processing (FSP) [85,86];
•
super short interval multi-pass rolling (SSMR) [87,88];
•
severe torsion straining (STS) [89,90];
•
torsion extrusion [91];
•
ECAP with rotation tooling in which the conventionalfixed die is replaced by rotating tools [92];
•
reversed shear spinning [92];
•
transverse rolling [92];
•
non-equal channel angular pressing (NECAP) for plateshapedbillets [93];
•
tube channel pressing [94];
•
KOBO forming [95];
•
high-pressure tube twisting (HPTT) for thin-walledtubes [96];
•
cyclic expansion–extrusion CEE—a modified CEC process[97];
•
simple shear extrusion [98,99];
•
vortex extrusion [100];
•
helical rolling [101];
•
high-pressure sliding [102].
It is found that strength and ductility maygreatly increase,when ECAP process were combined with
annealing / post ECAP processing like conventionalrolling, drawing or extrusion. The advantages of this
technique to improve strength [103-105], modify texture [106] or ductility [107-109]. Finally, new integrated
processing schemes have been recently developed and their derived properties are slightly improved when
compared to the single process [110-112] (Table 2).
2.3. Continuous SPD techniques
There are large numbers of discrete steps in the above mentioned SPD methods and also not cost
efficient. Moreover, basic SPD methods cannot able to deliver large work pieces and it is not applicable to
industry level application.Thus, continuous SPD techniques have been introduced to overcome all the
disadvantages. The varieties of continuous SPD techniques are explained below.
Continuous forming (CONFORM) is introducedby Etherington [120] with the aim of improving
theefficiency of materials recycling (Table 1m). It was further developedby Segal et al. as continuous ECAP of
bulkmaterials [37]. Raabet al. implemented these principleson Al and Ti rods [121]. In thisprocess, the work
piece rod is placed in a groove within a rotatingshaft.By using frictional forces, the rotating shaft is driven
forward and then it isextruded through an outlet cannel of the die. Saitoet al. modified this processfor
processingof sheets or strips and named it as continuous shearing[122] (Table 1o).The modification of the
CONFORM method for processing sheets or strips were proposed as Continuous confined strip shearing (C2S2)
[123,124](Table 1p). Repetitive corrugating and straightening (RCS) is the one which can produce fine
grainedstructures in metallic sheets or plates in bulk and as well it is a simple modification of rolling [74,75]
(Table 1q). Incremental ECAP (I-ECAP) is introduced by Rosochowskiet al. which is the extension
ofincremental metalforming operations, such as rolling or swaging and adapted it to ECAP by modifying it for
processingof long billets [127] (Table 1r).
Table 2Mechanical properties of someSPDprocessed UFG metals and alloys
Material
Ref.
Processing
σ0.2
(MPa)
σUTS
(MPa)
δ
σfo
(MPa)
AZ31
[114]
SC
50
170
10
40
HR 370�C
175
277
21
95
HR + ECAP 4Bc
200�C
115
251
27
95
[115]
ST 420�C 2 h + Q,
ECAP4Bc 320-200�C
180
286
9.4
40*
ZK60
[110]
As cast
222
264
7.4
55
[116]
IE 300�C
310
351
17
150
AA1050
(99.5%, CP
Al)
[117]
O
28
70
40
28
ECAP 8Bc
N/A
N/A
N/A
52
1100
[118]
ARB 8
210
275
Non
agehardenabl
e
AA5052 (Al
2.6Mg0.22Cr
, 0.26Fe)
[119]
H38
255
290
7
ECAP 8, 150 �C
394
421
9
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[108]
ECAP + A 200 �C, 6 h 350
370
10.5
AA
5056
Al–Mg
O
122
290
43
116
H18
407
434
10
152
ECAP 4C, 150 �C
280
340
25
116
ECAP 8Bc, 110 �C
392
442
7
116
AA5083 Al–
Mg
[125]
O
145
290
22
H321
230
315
16
ST 350 �C 1 h, ECAP
200 �C, 8C
276
352
20
Age-
hardenable
AA6061 Al–
Mg
O
150
270
48
40**
T6
276
310
12
50**
[128]
ST ECAP, 1, 125 �C
310
375
20
80**
ST ECAP, 4Bc, 125 �C 380
425
20
<60**
AA 2124
T851
455
492
7.2
125
[130]
T851 + ECAE 8Bc,
BP
330
602
7.2
290
AA 7075
O
105
230
17
T6
503
525
9
[131]
ECAP 2Bc + NA 1
month
650
720
8.4
Al–4Mg–
0.3Sc
HD
315
415
17
160
Al–5.2Mg–
0.32Mn–
0.25Sc
HR
240
375
29
150
Al–1.5Mg–
0.2Sc–Zr
[132]
ST + ECAP, 8Bc, 150
�C
340
360
13
135
Al–3.0Mg–
0.2Sc–Zr
ST + ECAP, 6Bc, 150
�C
370
400
15
140
Al–4.5Mg–
0.2Sc–Zr
ST + ECAP, 6Bc, 160
�C
230
410
29
150
Al–6.0Mg–
0.2Sc–Zr
ST460 �C 24 h +
ECAP, 4Bc, 320 �C
240
260
8
100
Al–5.7Mg–
0.32Sc–
0.4Mn
[133]
ST520 �C 48 h +
ECAP, 8C, 325 �C
280
300
8
190
AA6106 +
0.1Zr
[134]
ST, AG190 �C 4 h
250
350
23
175
AA6106d +
0.1Zr
+
0.5Sc
ST + ECAP 4 + Ag190
�C 4 h
570
590
9
225
ST, AG190 �C2 h
375
425
16
210
ST + ECAP 4 +
AG190 �C2 h
625
650
8
275
Ti (grade 2)
CR
380
460
26
240
[134]
ECAP 8Bc 400 �C
640
810
15
380
[135]
ECAP 8Bc 400 �C, CR
87% ECAP
970
1050
8
420
[136]
ECAP 6Bc 420 �C
630
670
32
350
Ti (grade 4)
[137]
CR
530
700
25
350***
ECAP 4Bc450–400
�C, FD300 �C
1150
1240
11
590***
ECAP 4Bc450–400
�C, F400–300 �C, D,
A350 �C 6 h
1100
1250
13
610***
Cu (99.99%)
[138]
ECAP 8Bc
375
387
170
Cu–0.36Cr
[140]
ECAP 8CA, AG 500
�C, 1 h
438
454
23
180
Fe (99.95%)
[139]
ECAP 4Bc
696
723
7
σ0.2 - conventional yield stress; σUTS - ultimate tensile strength; δ - elongation at break; σfo -endurance limit; O -
as received condition; CR - cold rolling; HR - hot rolling; F - forging; D - drawing; MF - multistep forging; S -
solution treatment; Q - quenching; A - annealing; AG - ageing; NA - natural ageing; BP - back pressure.
*R = 0.05
** R = 0
*** Rotation-bending test
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Continuous high-pressure torsion was developed by Edalati and Horita [113]. It is known to be an
advanced version of HPT techniquewhich can able to producesheets in a continuous fashion(Table 1s). Now,
variety of SPD techniques is available. High hydrostatic pressure and the toolgeometry are their
commonfeatures among them which permit multiple pass operation toachieve ultrahighstrains.Differences
between the varieties of SPD methods are deformationmode, shape of work piece, the efficacy and the load
involved.
III.
PROPERTIES OF SPD PROCESSED MATERIAL
3.1 Strength and ductility
Strength and ductility are the most primary parameter of a material, which will assign all other
mechanical characteristics. These properties are grain-size dependent because it is more affected by SPD
process than any other mechanical properties.Moreover, many properties are directly governed by strength and
ductility.Improving strength and ductility at the same time is considered as avery challenging task. For this, a
strategy has been followed by Hall–Petch relationwhich relates yield stress σy and the grain size d:
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎0 + 𝐾𝐻𝑃𝑑−
1
2
Where 𝜎0 - friction stress
KHP– constantfor a given material
As we seen earlier, there are number of various SPD processes are available (Table 1). In most of the
cases, among them, the common trends seem to be clear that while enhancing the strength there will be a loss of
ductility. It is illustrated in fig 5. where the variation of strength with number of ECAP passes. Combination of
high flow stress and low strain-hardeningcapability is the main reason for loss of ductility. In some other cases,
the tensile ductility of
Fig 5. (a)Tensile stress–strain curves and (b) S–N fatigue plot for SUS 316L austenitic stainless steel after
ECAP [147]
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SPD processed materials is actually higher than that of the nanostructuredmaterials, for example, by cryomilling
[141]. ECAP processed CP Al and ARB processed UFG Al and AA6016 are well revealed for enhancement of
ductility [142,143]. However, Markushev and Vinogradov [132] pointed out that there is no improvement in
ductility for non-age-hardenable Al–Mg alloys,such as AA5056. But, in age-hardenable Al alloys, it is found to
be mostresponsive to SPD in terms of structure refinement,strength enhancement and ductility improvement
[27,144–145].
As a result of SPD processing, uniform elongation does not commonlyimprove, but however,
thematerial’s resistance to localized plastic flow in the postneckingregime can increase remarkably.It was
proved in Al alloy 6061[148], Ti [149] and Fe–36Ni Invar [150].The results for the enhancement of both
strength and ductility showed on Ti [151], Cuand Cu–Al alloy [146,152,153], Cu–Zn [154], Al–Mg–Sc[155]
and Al–Mg–Si [156]. Moreover,Zhao et al. [154] developed a multistepprocessing schedule which involves
ECAP process followed bycryodrawing and cryorolling. They delivered a method for tremendousimprovement
of strength and ductility.
Another strategy for the enhancement of strength coupled with improved ductility is named as delayed
necking. It was achieved by mechanisms of deformation other than dislocation based ones, such as phase
transformations or twinning. These mechanisms are widely used in steels, which are referred as transformation
induced plasticity (TRIP) [157] and twinninginduced plasticity (TWIP) [158].Thetensileneck formation
increases the stress triaxiality at the neck [159]. Because of this, the martensite nucleation increases in austenitic
TRIP steels[140]. A local phase transformation with high stressconcentrations leads to local necking which
enhances uniform elongation. Tao et al. [160] emphasized that the phase transformation provides a source of
local strain hardeningwhenaustenite is replaced with martensite. Zhao et al. [161] demonstrated that Successful
implementation ofthe twinning-based deformation strategy byusing the majoradvantages of TWIP alloys with
low stacking fault energy(SFE). He found that UFG brassCu–10 wt.% Zn with a SFE of 35 mJ m
–2
is much
higher strength than UFG copper with aSFE of 78 mJ m
–2
and the ductility of this material was also increased.It
is illustrated in fig 5for a stable SUS 316L austeniticstainless steel. Because of its low SFE, the deformation
twinning of this steel wasactivated during ECAP processing at 150 �C. After three ECAP passes by routeBc, a
nanoscale grain structure was formed.This nanostructuredsteel provides an excellent fatigue performance
andimpressive thermal stability as well.
3.2 Fatigue and creep behavior
After the property of strength and ductility, fatigue and creep behavior is also an important property to
analyze and a challenging task too. Mechanism to enhance strength strictly obeys Hall-Petch relation which is
extended to sub-micron grain sizes and shows the dependency of grain sizes. But, however, based on the
previous studies, our history shows thatfatigue behaviour does not exhibit strong grain-size dependence [162-
165]. So far, when ECAP process is combined with other thermomechanicaltreatments, the fatigue of UFG
metals were obtained.
Fig. 6 The Wohler plot comparing fatigue lives and endurance limits for conventional and SPD-manufactured
Cu-based alloys (Cu–Cr and Cu–Cr–Zr)
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The research work on creep behaviour of UFG materials manufacturedby SPD is very little. Sklenicka
et al.[166–168] emphasized the different factors which affectingthe creep performance of pure aluminium, pure
copperand the binary Al–0.2 wt.%Sc alloy processed by ECAP. Thus it is noticed that the creep behavior
strongly depends on number of passes, a decrease inthe creep resistance on every successivepass. It is due to the
number of factors including microstructural changes, homogenization of themicrostructure and
nanoporosityinduced by ECAP.
3.3 Thermal stability
Improving several properties of a material at the sametime is a very challenging task for materials
science which provides multi functionality. Along with the strength and ductility, thermal stability, electrical
conductivity and corrosive resistance are also most important in such cases that could not able to sacrificed.
Depending on the material and their applications, a full list of properties according to their application needs to
be obtained [169]. In most of the cases, thermal stability is avulnerable point of many SPD-treated materials.
For example, SPD processed pure oxygen-freecopper provides poor thermal stability [170-172]. It has a
tendency to recover during storage even at room temperature because during severe straining, annihilation of
excess dislocations accumulated[173] (Fig. 11a). It is clearly shows thattherate of recoverydepends on the
number of ECAP passes. For SPD-manufactured copper,there is no significant change in microstructureup to
120–150 �C, but in the range of 150 to 250 �C recovery followed by recrystallization andabnormal grain growth
takes place (Fig. 11b). After annealing at 200 �C for 10 min,there is a transformationof UFG structure into a
bimodal one and at higher temperaturesit is evolved into fully recrystallized coarse-grained structure. It results
in loss of stability depending on the purity of copper. Several processes have been used to overcome this type of
limitations and to enhance multifunctional properties of SPD materials. Some of the processes includesgrain
refinement, strain hardening, solidsolutionhardening and precipitation hardening.
When the above post processes are applied to UFG metals, the followingmeasures have beenfollowed.
(a) Post-process annealing carried under recrystallization temperaturerelieves internal stresses and
increases work-hardening capacity. Thisimproves theoverall ductility of cold-worked materials[107,109,174].
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Fig. 11 (a)and (b) Thermal stability of ECAP processedcopper (99.96%), (c)SUS 316L stainless steel
(b) Titaniumwith hcp crystal lattice shows high thermal and microstructural stability under cyclic loading,
retaining its UFG microstructure up to 450 �C [175] and exhibitingno cyclic softening during Low Cycle Fatigue
(LCF) [149,176] for ECAP processed iron.
(c) Stabilization by solutes which prevents grain coarsening by pinning of grain boundaries [47,179].
(d) Particle-induced stabilization [47,180,154].
(e) Grain boundary engineering was proposed byWatanabe [177,178] defines designing a high
temperaturematerials exploits the idea of higher stabilityof special grain boundaries with low energy.
3.4 Corrosion resistance
For prospective engineeringapplications, corrosion resistance is an important property and
improvement of this property is also a challenging task. Corrosion insingle-phase polycrystalline metals is
mainly depending upon grain size and SPD processed strengthening mechanism should deteriorate the corrosion
behavior. Corrosion could happen in three major aspects corrosion (chemical, electrochemical, pitting,
etc.),stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and corrosion fatigue. Investigations carried out on only ECAP-processed
copper based on these aspects [182-186]. In this investigation, SPD process as a better conclusion. While
increasing the mechanical characteristics doesnot compromise the overall corrosion resistance andimproves the
SCC and corrosion fatigue resistance also. This statement is confirmed by comparing ECAP processed copper
with coarse-grained Cu polycrystals. There is a localized intergranular corrosion in coarse-grained Cu
polycrystalswhere such a homogeneity of corrosion damage found in UFG Cu (Fig. 13a and b). These findings
were followed by many researchers who found improved corrosion resistance of UFG Cu [187–188], Aland
some Al-alloys [181,189–191], titanium [192],interstitial-free steel [193], austenitic stainless steels 316L[194]
and 304 [195], FeCr [196], Mg [197] and Mg-basedalloy ZK60 [198].
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Fig. 13. SEM micrographs of ECAP copper (a) UFG stateafter ECAP and (b) a coarse-grained state after
annealing at 823 K for 30 min [182].
IV.
CONCLUSION
In these sections, we presented a brief history of SPD techniques, various SPD methods and the
properties of SPD processed UFG materials. This review will serve as an introduction and reference for the
readers those who are specializing in SPD process. This paper also gave fundamental problems of scientific
challenges face by the industrial application and we highlighted those challenges throughout the manuscript.
However, there are large numbers of concepts which have establisheda thorough justification is missing
in some concepts. Eventhough, the evidences for the responsibility ofbimodality of the grainstructure enhancing
the good balance betweenstrength and ductility are delivered, there is some indications that the relationship
between enhanced strength -ductility balance and the occurrence of a bimodalgrain structure are not proved. The
enhancement of corrosion resistance and proliferation of the specimen results in some categorized where the
surface phenomenon is affected by the link between surface and bulk properties. There is very limited research
work has been carried out on this phenomenon.
SPD methods are basically extended from conventional metal working techniques and it is developed
further for processing bulk materials. Now, this technique is extended further for some other purposessuch as
efficient compaction of powders [199], particularlyfor producing alloys from blended elemental powders
[200],and swarf [112,201]. Somehow, more new attractive applications were delivered [202]. Production
ofarchitecturing and nanostructuring hybridmaterials usesadvanced SPD techniques. In particular,for producing
a material in range of spiral architectures which is most beneficial for strength and ductility usestwist extrusion,
HPT and some latest methods. This field willhave an outstanding future for the manufacturing ofinnovative
materials and creative process design.
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